Stigma management - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

When a person receives unfair treatment or alienation due to a social stigma

Social stigma

Social stigma is the severe disapproval of or discontent with a person on the grounds of characteristics that distinguish them from other members of a society.Almost all stigma is based on a person differing from social or cultural norms...

the effects can be detrimental. Social stigma can be defined as any aspect of an individual’s identity that is devalued in a social context (Goffman, 1963). For some individuals, a stigma can be invisible to others, leading to an internal conflict over whether to inform others of this hidden characteristic. This decision can be seen as deciding whether or not to disclose the invisible stigma, which can be defined as an individual revealing their association with a devalued group (Crocker, Major, & Steele, 1998). Invisible stigmas (such as religion, LGBT association, pregnancy, disease, illness, etc.) may present an especially difficult disclosure decision because choosing to reveal these stigmas can have both positive (Croteau, Anderson, & VanderWal, 2008) and negative (Chaudoir & Fisher, 2010) consequences. In contrast, a visible stigma requires an immediate reaction to diminish communication tension and acknowledge a deviation from the norm.

Passing

Passing can be defined as “a cultural performance whereby one member of a defined social group masquerades as another in order to enjoy the privileges afforded to the dominant group” (Leary, 1999, p. 85). In other words, passing is simply choosing not to disclose one’s invisible stigma in order to appear to be part of the dominant (i.e., not stigmatized) group. Those who pass must be constantly aware of social cues in order to avoid accidentally disclosing information about their hidden identity, a worry that most individuals from dominant groups do not share (Goffman, 1963). People may rely on several different strategies for passing or concealing their invisible stigma at work. These strategies include fabrication, concealment, and discretion (Herek, 1996).

Fabrication

The fabrication strategy involves purposefully presenting false information about oneself in order to hide one’s invisible stigma. Individuals using this strategy utilize deception to create a false identity in order to avoid revealing their stigmatized trait (Herek, 1996). In research involving lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) individuals, Woods (1994) has identified a similar strategy called counterfeiting which is simply the act of constructing a false heterosexual identity, which also serves as a nice example of the passing strategy of fabrication. LGBT individuals engaging in this passing strategy may even go so far as to pretend they have a heterosexual partner in front of their coworkers (Woods, 1994).

Concealment

The concealment strategy involves taking preventative measures to keep others from discovering personal characteristics for fear that may reveal an individual’s invisible stigma (Herek, 1996). Individuals using this strategy would not actively use deception like individuals using the fabrication strategy would, but they would still take an active role in carefully protecting themselves from revealing too much personal information. In research involving LGBT individuals, Woods (1994) has identified a very similar strategy called avoidance which is simply revealing no information about one’s sexual identity in order to avoid disclosure on this topic. This also serves as a nice example of concealment for this specific invisibly stigmatized group.

Discretion

The discretion strategy is subtly different from the concealment strategy as it involves an individual avoiding questions or revealing information that is specifically related to their invisible stigma (Herek, 1996). Discretion is not as active of a passing strategy as the other two, but it does involve interpersonal elusiveness and speaking in ambiguous language when the conversation threatens to potentially reveal one’s stigmatized identity (Chrobot-Mason, Button, & Declimenti, 2001). An example of this strategy (and a way to distinguish it from concealment) would be a person who is very willing to reveal personal information to their coworker but is also very reluctant to discuss any topics that they think may be related to their invisible stigma.

Revealing

When a person chooses to unveil an otherwise invisible stigma to their coworkers, they are choosing to reveal their stigma in that situation. It is important to note that individuals may vary in the degree to which they reveal invisible stigmas to their coworkers (Clair, Beatty, & Maclean, 2005). For example, employees may choose to reveal their stigma to everyone they encounter, or they might judiciously choose a select few that they are comfortable with telling about their invisible stigma. People may rely on several different strategies for revealing their invisible stigmas at work. These strategies include signaling, normalizing, and differentiating (Clair, et al., 2005).

Signaling

The signaling strategy involves avoiding complete disclosure of one’s invisible stigma to his/her coworkers. Rather, people who use this strategy tend to drop hints and send signals to their coworkers without having to completely reveal their invisible stigma. Examples of signals may include the use of cryptic language, bringing up conversation topics that are specific to a stigmatized group, using symbols that are specific to a stigmatized group, and/or the use of nonverbal cues consistent with one’s stigmatized group membership (Clair et al., 2005). Individuals using this strategy are essentially inviting others to discover their stigma by providing enough clues for peers without directly revealing their stigma (Woods, 1994).

Normalizing

The normalizing

Normalization (sociology)

Normalization refers to social processes through which ideas and actions come to be seen as "normal" and become taken-for-granted or 'natural' in everyday life. In sociological theory normalization appears in two forms....

strategy involves revealing one’s invisible stigma, but then minimizing its significance as to appear just as normal as everyone else (Clair et al., 2005). While this strategy does involve disclosure of one’s invisible stigma, it also involves an attempt by stigmatized individuals to assimilate into organizations effectively and establish as normal of an existence as they can (Joachim & Acorn, 2000; Royer, 1998). Researchers have suggested that this strategy helps stigmatized individuals strike a balance between the desire to reveal their stigma and dealing with the consequences that may result from their disclosure (Royer, 1998).

Differentiating

The differentiating strategy involves not only revealing one’s invisible stigma, but also emphasizing it and how it differentiates one from others. People who use this strategy try to eliminate unfair judgment by presenting their identity as equally acceptable when compared with others (Clair, et al., 2005). Some researchers (Creed & Scully, 2000; Taylor & Raeburn, 1995) have referred to this strategy as deploying one's identity, citing individuals who reveal their stigmas in order to test the perceptions of dominant organizational groups in an effort to inspire organizational change.

Organizational Diversity Climate

Diversity climate is a term coined by Tsui and Gutek (1999) referring to social norms of acceptance or discrimination established within a workplace environment. As one might expect, research has shown that accepting work environments promote more open communication (i.e., revealing) among their employees with invisible stigmas (Chorbot-Mason et al., 2001; Driscoll, Kelley, & Fassinger, 1996). Accepting work environments can include supportive coworkers (Cain, 1991; Ragins & Cornwell, 2007), supportive managers (Day & Schoenrade, 1997), or simply the presence of other individuals who have revealed their invisible stigma without experiencing negative consequences (Ragins & Cornwell, 2007).

Professional and Industry Norms

The norms of one’s overarching industry may have implications for stigmatized individuals’ likelihood of passing or revealing in the workplace (Clair et al., 2005). Indeed, some have noted that individuals working for conservative industries such as the military may be less likely to reveal their stigma (Friskopp & Silverstein, 1995) than individuals who work in industries that may actually encourage employees to disclose personal information about themselves, like human services (Halmos, 1970).

Legal Protections

Some individuals with invisible stigmas are protected under laws at various governmental levels (i.e., local, state, and/or federal), while others are not considered among these protected groups. Not surprisingly, those with invisible stigmas that are protected under law (e.g., disability) are more likely to reveal their stigma than those with invisible stigmas that are not protected under law (e.g., sexual orientation) (Ragins & Cornwell, 2001). It’s also important to note that, in the case of disability status, stigmatized individuals may actually be required to reveal their stigma in order to receive certain workplace benefits.

Interpersonal Context

An individual’s likelihood of passing or revealing is also affected by the relationship they have with the person they are interacting with as well as the demographic characteristics of the person they are interacting with (Clair et al., 2005). Understandably, individuals are more willing to reveal stigmatized information to those that they trust (Derlega, Metts, Petronio, & Margulis, 1993). Additionally, an individual may be more likely to reveal their invisible stigma to a person who possesses the same stigma (Gibbons, 1986). Finally, individuals may be generally more likely to reveal their stigmas to females than to males, believing females to be more effective communicators, especially on sensitive topics (Derlega et al., 1993).

Propensity Toward Risk-taking

Given that individuals vary in their willingness to take risks (Bromiley & Curley, 1992), the idea has been proposed that individuals higher in risk-taking propensity will be more likely to reveal their stigma at work than those who are lower in risk-taking propensity (Clair et al., 2005). This prediction stems from the fact that choosing to reveal an invisible stigma at work could be a very risky decision, especially if one receives (or perceives that they will receive) discriminatory treatment as a result of their disclosure.

Self-monitoring

Self-monitoring can be defined as the act of controlling and managing the impression one puts forward to ensure that social roles and expectations are being met (Snyder, 1987). While self-monitoring ability may not be directly related to passing or revealing behaviors, it likely is related to choosing effective strategies for managing one’s identity. Research has stated that high self-monitors are better able to examine their environment for signs of acceptance when deciding to pass or reveal (Anderson & Randlet, 1993), while low self-monitors may have more trouble effectively managing the impressions they are making (Gangestad & Snyder, 2000).

Development Stage

An adult’s level of sophistication and how developed their stigmatized identity is may also have an effect on individuals’ willingness to reveal an invisible stigma. Highly developed individuals with stigmas that are central to their self-concept tend to see their stigmatized identity just as valid as other identities (Tatum, 1997), and thus should theoretically not be as afraid to reveal it to others. Indeed, research has shown that individuals who ultimately reveal their stigmatized identity tend to be more assured of that identity than individuals who choose to pass (Adams, Pill, & Jones, 1997; Moorhead, 1999).

Consequences of Passing

The main issue that can arise from passing is that the individual feels as though they are not being true to themselves, which can create an inner sense of turmoil and lead to psychological strain for the person hiding their identity (Goffman, 1963; Leary, 1999). Additionally, fears associated with revealing one’s invisible stigma (among those who are currently passing) have been shown to lead to a myriad of negative workplace consequences, including lowered job satisfaction

Job satisfaction

Job satisfaction describes how content an individual is with his /her job. The happier people are within their job, the more satisfied they are said to be. Job satisfaction is not the same as motivation or aptitude, although it is clearly linked...

, less organizational commitment

Organizational commitment

Organizational commitment in the fields of Organizational Behavior and Industrial/Organizational Psychology is, in a general sense, the employee's psychological attachment to the organization...

, and higher turnover intentions (Ragins & Cornwell, 2007). Interpersonal consequences can also arise when an individual is passing by not revealing much personal information in the workplace. These consequences include strained social relationships, social isolation

Social isolation

Social isolation refers to a lack of contact with society for members of social species. There may be many causes and individuals in numerous generally social species are isolated at times, it need not be a pathological condition. In human society, in those cases where it is viewed as a pathology,...

, and limited mentoring opportunities (Day & Schoenrade, 1997; Herek, 1996).

Consequences of Revealing

Although revealing could have the positive effect of reducing the psychological strain and dissonance associated with passing strategies, many negative consequences could also result from revealing a devalued stigmatized identity. Potential consequences include opening oneself up to prejudice and discriminatory treatment at work. These negative consequences could become magnified if stigmas are revealed in an organization that is not supportive of the individual’s invisible stigma (Clair et al., 2005). However, if an individual can produce social change and reduce their dissonance associated with passing by revealing their stigma, revealing in the workplace might end up being worth the risk in the long run (Creed & Scully, 2000; Shallenberger, 1994). It is also important to note that revealing is not always a voluntary activity. For example, disabled individuals who require accommodation in the workplace must disclose the nature of their disability in order to obtain benefits under the Americans with Disabilities Act. This disclosure often unintentionally forces a person to reveal where their disability would otherwise be invisible to others (Matthews & Harrington, 2000).

Solutions for Organizations

When an organization enforces clear policies and practices that forbid discrimination based on sexual orientation, LGBT employees report less discrimination (Ragins & Cornwell, 2001), which should to less lawsuits and turnover. When an organization voluntarily adopts policies that demonstrate an accepting and non-judgmental environment, a person can seek support for their stigma (e.g., domestic partner benefits) (Clair at al., 2005). Pregnant women in a work environments that use supplementing policies (such as paid leave or telework) often stay at work into the late stages of pregnancy, and usually return sooner compared to women at unaccommodating organizations (King & Botsford, 2009). Practices such as these not only benefit the individual, but they also benefit the organization in the long run.
Training employees, managers, and supervisors through diversity workshops serves to better educate everyone on the misconceptions surrounding LBGT workers, and should be used to address other stigmas as well. By presenting facts and defining inappropriate behaviors, organizations show their acceptance and tolerance of stigmas (Button, 2001). When affirmative policies and practices are up-front and seem sincere, stigmatized groups face less discrimination (Button, 2001), which should lead to higher employee morale, and greater workplace productivity.

Problems with Existing Research and Future Directions

One major issue that has been raised in regard to identity management is an issue of measurement. Some researchers have expressed that research cannot move forward without appropriate measurement techniques and appropriately conceptualized behaviors for passing and revealing in the workplace (Clair et al., 2005). Indeed, it can be hard to distinguish between the passing behaviors identified by Herek (1996). As for future research, other researchers have called for a better understanding of the underlying processes involved in the decision to disclose in addition to increased specificity in the classification of groups with invisible stigmas (Ragins, 2008). Additionally, researchers have called for future studies to focus on invisible stigma in groups, the timing and trust involved in revealing, and the potential for organizational change as a result of revealing strategies (Clair et al., 2005).

Managing Visible Stigmas

Unlike invisible stigmas, which can produce tension from trying to conceal it from others, visible stigmas require impression management

Impression management

In sociology and social psychology, impression management is a goal-directed conscious or unconscious process in which people attempt to influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object or event; they do so by regulating and controlling information in social interaction...

Impression management involves a series of thoughtful actions, which can range from embracing one’s stigma to accepting the role of an outcast (Kusow, 2007). By controlling the information exchanged during a social interaction, a stigmatized individual exerts power over how others perceive them. Depending on the audience, Goffman (1959) theorized that individuals present their stigmas differently. Social cues given off by the audience will tell the stigmatized individual how receptive the group is to their stigma. Then the individual will decide which method, or combination of methods, of impression management should be used. Goffman (1968) identified several methods of visible stigma identity management including sign vehicles, fronts, dramatic realization, idealization, maintenance of expressive control, misrepresentation, mystification, and reality and contrivance (Sitton, 2010). As with invisible stigmas, a person may decide to pass if the perceived risks outweigh the benefits. Another technique, known as covering, allows the individual to conceal their visible stigma from others (such as a burn victim always wearing sleeves) (Goffman, 1968). Because a visible stigma is often noticed upon first meeting, the individual must immediately decide how to normalize it so that the interaction does not become uncomfortable for either party involved.