Sesotho verbs
Encyclopedia
Sesotho verbs are words in the language which signify the action or state of a substantive, and are brought into agreement with it using the subjectival concord. This definition excludes imperatives and infinitives, which are respectively interjectives and class 14 nouns
.
In the Bantu languages
, verbs often form the centre of a complex web of regular derivational patterns, and words/roots belonging to many parts of speech may be directly or indirectly derived from them. Not only may new verbs be derived using a large number of derivational suffixes, nouns
(and, iteratively, the other parts of speech which may be derived from them), some imperative interjectives and, to a lesser extent, ideophones may be formed by simple morphological devices.
Regular verbs are those beginning with a consonant and ending in the vowel . The final may change into every vowel except the near-close near-back vowel (/ʊ/) through inflexion or derivation. The verb root is the atomic part of the verb which does not change (save for some purely phonetic changes) and Bantu languages share numerous similar verb roots (with predictable sound changes between languages).
Monosyllabic stems may be classified into several categories:
Vowel verb stems are conjugated as regular verbs but are put into a separate class due to being uncommon in Bantu languages (and, in some languages but not in Sesotho, causing changes to concords and other formatives prefixed to them). Class 1 and 5 nouns derived from these verbs do not cause any velarization to the prefix. The Proto-Bantu reconstructions of many of these verbs suggests that they originally began with *g (or sometimes *j), which "protected" the vowel.
What the verbal tone system lacks in variety, however, it more than makes up for in complexity. The tones of the syllables of the verbs regularly change under varying grammatical environments, with the high tones being manipulated by "tonal rules", and the tones associated with certain syllables being changed by numerous "tonal melodies."
In the following sections, "polysyllabic" generally means "of more than two syllables."
Verbs are derived primarily through suffixes, some of which are no longer active ("dead").
Though it may appear that the possibilities are endless, the truth is that the depth is limited by various factors. Apart from the obvious constraints of semantics
(whether a complex meaning actually makes any sense and serves any possible purpose) and markedness
(how strange and complex the verb sounds to the native speaker), there are also restrictions on the order of the extensions.
If an extension increases the valency of a verb, any objects of the original verb are demoted and the new object is made principal.
If an objectival concord is used instead of an object, the concord agrees with what would have been the principal object. Additionally, if the original object was also only indicated by an objectival concord, then it becomes demoted to an absolute pronoun (Sesotho verbs may only have one objectival concord).
(Note how the infix disappears when the verb is followed by a direct object, even if it is not the object indicated by the concord.)
Like all other Bantu languages, Sesotho has inherited certain restrictions on the order of the extensions. The most basic rule (which is broken by very few languages) is that the passive and the short causative always follow all the other extensions (including the perfect , which is always used with the final vowel ). Although it is probable that Proto-Bantu had fairly strict restrictions on the order of the other extensions, these rules have been relaxed somewhat in modern Bantu languages.
For example, since the causative is normally ordered closer to the verb stem than the reciprocal (or indeed, most other extensions), to form the causative of the reciprocal the (dead) short causative (Proto-Bantu *-î-) is usually used instead, therefore palatalizing the reciprocal to . Various other unexpected palatalizations and alveolarizations brought on by combinations of the causative with other extensions may be similarly explained by the action of the short causative either replacing the normal causative, or being used together with the long causative around another extension (causative + other extension ⇒ + other extension + *-î- ⇒ + modified extension).
Certain extensions (intensive, perfective, associative, reversive, and augmentative) are obviously fossilised compound extensions. Often a derived verb may continue being used while the original verb disappears from the language.
Note that, since prefixes are of the shape CV or V (where C represents a consonant and V a vowel), verb roots end without the final vowel, prefixes are of the shape (VC)* (* indicates possible repetition) and the final vowel simply has shape V, this and other structures reinforce the open syllable structure of the Bantu languages, and very few languages have broken it.
When forming these verbs, the tone of the first syllable of the verb (its characteristic tone) corresponds to the tone of the first syllable of the part of the original word used to form the verb (usually the root, but a complete noun for monosyllabic roots). Thus verbs derived regularly from monosyllabic stems are all L verbs (due to the null toned prefix).
The general rules for the formation of the perfect are varied due to various mostly phonological interactions with the suffix:
For all verbs, however, the past tense may also be indicated with the simple (past subjunctive) multi-verbal conjugation, although its meaning does diverge somewhat from that of the perfect (especially with stative verbs)
are conjugated by means of prefixes and infixes indicating person, mood
, implication, and aspect
.
There are two conjugations, the positive and negative, and most tenses have corresponding forms in each. The language recognises four moods: the indicative, the subjunctive, the potential, and the participial sub-mood (infinitives are nouns and imperatives are interjectives). The moods may be divided into tenses according to time (remote past, immediate past, present, immediate future, and remote future) and implication (simple, progressive, and exclusive), which may be further subdivided according to aspect into indefinite, continuous, and perfect.
There are also many often complex compound tenses, indicated by changes in tone and the use of deficient verbs
(multi-verbal conjugations).
Import refers to how the object of the verb is indicated.
Verbs can be either:
Many verbs can have more than one import ( (walk) can be locative, instrumental, or conjunctive; (speak) can be intransitive, transitive, instrumental, or conjunctive) and verb derivatives can also change the import of the stem.
Many shades of meaning are achieved by the employment of deficient verbs in multi-verbal conjugations. Many tenses and moods may only be formed in this manner.
In Sesotho, as with most other Bantu languages, this has been modified somewhat, resulting in the following structure ("I shall no longer look on his behalf"):
Though indicative tenses form their negatives with the prefix , many other moods and tenses form their negatives with an infix (either or , depending on the specific tense). The verbal auxiliary infixes are used to indicate tense, certain forms of the subjunctive, progressive implication, the potential mood, as well verb focus in the present indicative tense. The verbal infixes always follow the simple infixes, though there are some instances where two simple infixes are used at the same time.
The extensions include suffixes used in verbal derivatives as well as the perfect (which is always followed by the final vowel ).
With the exception of the verb root, each of these formatives is monosyllabic, but in Sesotho some verbal infixes (those that are contractions) and extensions (those which are obvious compoundings of earlier forms) also have more than one syllable.
Additionally, the structure (obj conc. + stem) is often called the "macrostem" in various syntactical and tonal theories.
Many aspects and tenses are indicated by multi-verbal conjugations and, with the exception of the subjectival concord, the root, and the final vowel, most of these formatives are not always necessary. Note that infinitives and imperatives (both of with do not have subjectival concords) may be considered separate parts of speech (nouns
/gerunds and interjectives). Deficient verbs are never used with objectival concords, and the use of the other formatives with them is also limited.
This structure obviously ignores any possible enclitics which may be suffixed.
.
of the action. In Sesotho there are at least three aspects, the definite, the continuous, and the perfect.
Deficient verbs, being "deficient", are never used alone. Many of them are irregular in form and have irregular inflexions. Monosyllabic deficient verbs are never used with the penultimate that is sometimes used with normal verbs (not to be confused with the indefinite concord).
Many of these verbs seem radical in nature, while others (especially those with complex implications) are obviously derived from certain extant normal verbs (but are used with slightly different meanings). What distinguishes the deficient usage of these normal verbs is the fact that they are followed directly by another verb and affect its meaning (and only the main verb may carry an objectival concord).
Sesotho nouns
Sesotho nouns signify concrete or abstract concepts in the language, but are distinct from the Sesotho pronouns.Bantu languages are often said to have sentences which are "centred around the noun" due to the striking nature of the noun concordance system...
.
In the Bantu languages
Bantu languages
The Bantu languages constitute a traditional sub-branch of the Niger–Congo languages. There are about 250 Bantu languages by the criterion of mutual intelligibility, though the distinction between language and dialect is often unclear, and Ethnologue counts 535 languages...
, verbs often form the centre of a complex web of regular derivational patterns, and words/roots belonging to many parts of speech may be directly or indirectly derived from them. Not only may new verbs be derived using a large number of derivational suffixes, nouns
Sesotho nouns
Sesotho nouns signify concrete or abstract concepts in the language, but are distinct from the Sesotho pronouns.Bantu languages are often said to have sentences which are "centred around the noun" due to the striking nature of the noun concordance system...
(and, iteratively, the other parts of speech which may be derived from them), some imperative interjectives and, to a lesser extent, ideophones may be formed by simple morphological devices.
Varieties
Verb stems may be divided into four varieties:- Regular stems beginning with a consonant and ending in a vowel
- Monosyllabic verbs
- Vowel verb stems begin with a vowel
- Derived verbs constructed from other verbs, noun roots, adjectival roots, and ideophones by suffixes.
Regular verbs are those beginning with a consonant and ending in the vowel . The final may change into every vowel except the near-close near-back vowel (/ʊ/) through inflexion or derivation. The verb root is the atomic part of the verb which does not change (save for some purely phonetic changes) and Bantu languages share numerous similar verb roots (with predictable sound changes between languages).
- Stem see, from root , also existing as isiZulu -bon-, SwahiliSwahili languageSwahili or Kiswahili is a Bantu language spoken by various ethnic groups that inhabit several large stretches of the Mozambique Channel coastline from northern Kenya to northern Mozambique, including the Comoro Islands. It is also spoken by ethnic minority groups in Somalia...
-on-, Tshivenda -vhon-, Chishona -von-, ChilambaLamba languageLamba is a language found in Zambia. It is related to Bemba and is commonly spoken in the Copperbelt. There are about 210,000 native speakers in the northern parts of Zambia and southern fringes of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Lamba is also spoken in Lusaka, mainly because many speakers...
-won- etc. Proto-Bantu *-bon-
Monosyllabic stems may be classified into several categories:
- The i-stems have a typical in derivatives, and in the passive
- come ⇒ Perfect , Causative , Passive
- go ⇒ Perfect , Causative , Passive
- draw water ⇒ Perfect , Causative , Passive
- The e-stems have a typical near-close near-front in their derivatives
- burn ⇒ Perfect , Causative , Passive
- eat ⇒ Perfect , Causative , Passive
- The "velar" e-stems have labialized onsets, and have similar forms to other e-stems but have a near-close near-back vowel in the passive
- drink ⇒ Perfect , Causative , Passive
- There are three defective stems, ending in a vowel other than . The first two of these verbs are very common among the Bantu languages
- say ⇒ Perfect , No causative, Passive
- be; very restricted in use (only used in the participial sub-mood of certain copulatives)
- say so ⇒ Perfect / , No causative, No passive
Vowel verb stems are conjugated as regular verbs but are put into a separate class due to being uncommon in Bantu languages (and, in some languages but not in Sesotho, causing changes to concords and other formatives prefixed to them). Class 1 and 5 nouns derived from these verbs do not cause any velarization to the prefix. The Proto-Bantu reconstructions of many of these verbs suggests that they originally began with *g (or sometimes *j), which "protected" the vowel.
- avoid (as a taboo)
- travel
- hear, sense
- construct
- strike, punish
Tones
Verbs fall into only two categories when it comes to their tones: L verbs and H verbs. The difference lies in whether the "underlying tone" of the verb's first syllable is high or null (under-specified). Thus, all verbs of a certain length which fall under the same tonal category are pronounced with similar tonal patterns under the same grammatical circumstances.What the verbal tone system lacks in variety, however, it more than makes up for in complexity. The tones of the syllables of the verbs regularly change under varying grammatical environments, with the high tones being manipulated by "tonal rules", and the tones associated with certain syllables being changed by numerous "tonal melodies."
Verbal derivatives
Various derivatives may (recursively) be formed from verbs by means of several suffixes (called "extensions"). Each derived verb is as much an authentic verb as the original.In the following sections, "polysyllabic" generally means "of more than two syllables."
Verbs are derived primarily through suffixes, some of which are no longer active ("dead").
| Type | Suffix | Valency Valency (linguistics) In linguistics, verb valency or valence refers to the number of arguments controlled by a verbal predicate. It is related, though not identical, to verb transitivity, which counts only object arguments of the verbal predicate... change |
Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Simple | finish | |||
| Passive | be finished | |||
| Neutro-active | finishable | |||
| Neutro-passive | finishable | |||
| Applied | finished for | |||
| Causative | cause to finish | |||
| Intensive | finish intensely | |||
| Perfective | finish completely | |||
| Reciprocal | finish each other | |||
| Associative | (be finished together) | |||
| Reversive | unfinish | |||
| Augmentative | (finish extensively) | |||
| Extensive | (finish repeatedly and extensively) | |||
| Diminutive | (see text) | finish a little | ||
| Positional (dead) | (squat) | |||
| Stative extensive (dead) | (sleep) | |||
| Contactive (dead) | (clench the hand) |
- The passive indicates that the subject is acted upon by the agent, just like the "passive voice" in English. The agentAgent (grammar)In linguistics, a grammatical agent is the cause or initiator of an event. Agent is the name of the thematic role...
is indicated by the copulative prefix although passives may also be used idiomatically without an agent.
The suffix may be either (Proto-Bantu *-u-) (short passive) or (long passive).
The following rules are applied to form the passive:
- The long passive is formed simply by changing the final to
- mould ⇒ be moulded
- Many verbs accept the short passive suffix by simply becoming labialized
- do ⇒ be done
- Palatalization occurs where necessary (when the final consonant is , , , or )
- win ⇒ / be won
- Velarization occurs where necessary (when the final consonant is or )
- move slightly ⇒ be moved slightly
- Monosyllabic e-stems suffix (except the velar e-stems ending in , which suffix ) and i-stems suffix
- give ⇒ be given
- Verbs ending in replace it with
- select, indicate ⇒ be selected
- Verbs ending in replace it with
- judge, condemn ⇒ be judged
It is very rare to have other verbs derived from the passive through suffixes.
This suffix has the effect of decreasing the valencyValency (linguistics)In linguistics, verb valency or valence refers to the number of arguments controlled by a verbal predicate. It is related, though not identical, to verb transitivity, which counts only object arguments of the verbal predicate...
of the verb and giving it an agentive import.
In the most formal standard language, the perfect of the passive is generally formed by inserting before the final vowel of the perfect form (that is, the passive suffix has to come after the perfect suffix). In non-standard common speech, however, the perfect of the passive may alternatively be formed by using the long passive with the final vowel changed to the final vowel (usually ) of the verb's perfect. Additionally, in non-standard speech the perfect passive of verbs ending in a that changes to in the passive replace it with .
The passive is used more commonly in Sesotho than the English "passive voice." Consider the following example:- Sesotho (passive) , English (active) "Who will feed the dog?"
The alternatives are more complex in their respective languages:- Sesotho (normal) , English (passive) "The dog will be fed by whom?"
Passive verbs are rare in the Niger–CongoNiger–Congo languagesThe Niger–Congo languages constitute one of the world's major language families, and Africa's largest in terms of geographical area, number of speakers, and number of distinct languages. They may constitute the world's largest language family in terms of distinct languages, although this question...
family outside the Bantu sub-branch.
- The long passive is formed simply by changing the final to
- The neutro-active indicates an intransitive state without reference to the agent determining the condition. It can be approximated in English by using "get" or "become." It is, however, distinct from the passive. It indicates a current state of being done or being doable.
The suffix is . Only transitive vers may take this suffix.- accomplish ⇒ (currently) get finished, take place
- do ⇒ be done
This suffix has the effect of making the valency of the verb 0, even if the original verb had two objects. The resultant verb is completely intransitive and cannot assume any objects even if they are prefixed.
The perfect of verbs ending with this suffix is achieved by changing the final to .
This extension is quite rare in the Bantu language family as a whole.
- The neutro-passive indicates an intransitive state without reference to the agent determining the condition. It can be approximated in English by the suffix "-able." It is, however, distinct from the passive. It indicates that the verb has the potential of being doable, but not necessarily currently.
The suffix is (Proto-Bantu *-ik-, with an irregular vowel shift). Only transitive vers may take this suffix.- disperse ⇒ be (potentially) spillable, become scattered
- do ⇒ be doable, become done
This suffix has the effect of making the valency of the verb 0, even if the original verb had two objects. The resultant verb is completely intransitive and cannot assume any objects even if they are prefixed.
The past tense of verbs ending with this suffix is formed in the general way by replacing the final vowel with .
- The applied indicates an action applied on behalf of or with regard to some object. It can be approximated in English by prepositions and prepositional phrases such as "for" and "towards."
The suffix is (Proto-Bantu *-id-, with an irregular vowel shift). Sometimes this extension is doubled to , causing the verb to look like a perfective form but with an applied meaning.
The following rules apply when forming the applied:
- Usually one simply suffixes
- to search for ⇒ search on behalf of
- Verbs ending in replace it with
- walk ⇒ walk on behalf of, towards
- Verbs ending in preceded by an open vowel (/ɛ/, /ɑ/, or /ɔ/) elide the middle /ɛ/ and contract to
- write ⇒ write to/for
- Verbs ending in preceded by a closed vowel (/i/, /ɪ/, /ʊ/, or /u/) don't contract
- grow ⇒ grow for/towards
- Polysyllabic verbs ending in , (most), , , and cause the to alveolarize to
- do ⇒ do for
- Polysyllabic causative verbs ending in replace it with , reversing an original alveolarization
- work ⇒ work for
The applied increases the valency of verbs; intransitive verbs may become transitive in the applied, and transitive verbs may become doubly transitive- live ⇒ live for
- say something ⇒ tell someone something (two objects)
The past tense of verbs ending with this suffix changes the to .
- Usually one simply suffixes
- The causativeCausativeIn linguistics, a causative is a form that indicates that a subject causes someone or something else to do or be something, or causes a change in state of a non-volitional event....
indicates an action caused to happen by some agent. It can be approximated in English by using "cause to."
The suffix is (Proto-Bantu long causative *-îc- + short causative *-î- ⇒ *-îcî-).
The following rules apply when forming the causative. Most complications are caused by the original Proto-Bantu "short causative" *-î- being absorbed into the preceding consonant (Sesotho does not allow palatal glides):
- Usually one simply suffixes
- do ⇒ cause to do
- Verbs ending in replace it with
- walk ⇒ cause to walk
- Some verbs ending in a which is an alveolarization of an original revert the alveolarization, ending in
- work ⇒ use
- Monosyllabic e-stems suffix and i-stems suffix
- drink ⇒ cause to drink
- Verbs ending in and disyllabic verbs ending in contract and cause nasalization resulting in
- see ⇒ show
- The original Proto-Bantu short causative suffix causes some verbs ending in and to change to and respectively (in common non-standard speech all verbs ending in are changed to )
- meet ⇒ join
- Most verbs ending in and change the to . This is also due to the Proto-Bantu short causative (Proto-Bantu *-k- + short causative *-î- + final *-a ⇒ *-kîa, which appears as Sesotho )
- go to graze ⇒ herd
Often the causative verb has a meaning implying "help to do"- build ⇒ help to build ⇒ help each other to build ⇒ neighbour (since traditionally neighbouring houses would share a wall and yard, which the owners would build together)
The causative may increase the valency of verbs- know something ⇒ cause someone to know something
Usually the perfect is formed by further suffixing , but if the derivation alveolarized an original final to then the alveolarization is reversed, resulting in final . If the suffix changed final to then the perfect is formed by replacing this final syllable with .
- Usually one simply suffixes
- The intensive indicates intensity or quickness of action.
The suffix is simply a doubling of the causative suffix and the first syllable therefore follows similar phonetic rules as the causative. Sometimes, the suffix is used instead, resulting in causative and intensive verbs looking the same.
- look for ⇒ investigate, search thoroughly
- do ⇒ do intensely
- The perfective indicates an action that has been carried out to completion or perfection.
The suffix is simply a doubling of the applied suffix . It must therefore not be confused with the applied form of verbs ending in .
- step on ⇒ oppress, coerse
- do ⇒ do thoroughly
A further intensification of meaning is achieved with the suffixes ( + Proto-Bantu *-îa) and ( + Proto-Bantu *-îa), a compounding of intensive and perfective suffixes. These verbs tend to denote meanings indicating specific purpose, and it is not unlikely that they are in fact intensifications of the applied suffix instead (though the verb's valency is not increased).- shout ⇒ call out, scream
- obscure, screen ⇒ protect
Though one might expect this suffix to form the perfect by replacing the with , it often appears as instead, even in standard speech.
- The reciprocalReciprocal (grammar)A reciprocal is a linguistic structure that marks a particular kind of relationship between two noun phrases. In a reciprocal construction, each of the participants occupies both the role of agent and patient with respect to each other...
denotes a reciprocated action.
It is formed by suffixing (Proto-Bantu *-an-).
It is usually used with plural subjects and plural concords, and has the effect of decreasing the valency. However, an object (the second subject) as well as a singular subject may still be used if the object is prefixed with the conjunctive enclitic (and, with); that is, they have a conjunctive import- speak ⇒ cause to speak ⇒ they communicate, I communicate with him
- do ⇒ do (to) each another
Often this suffix is used when there is no chance that two subjects are involved in reciprocating the action. In this case it simply converts the verb from transitive to conjunctive import, with a minor modification of meaning (the action is slightly extended in time, or indicates a habit of the actor)- look at, search for ⇒ / I am looking for them (class 8 or 10 object)
The perfect is usually formed by changing the final vowel to , though if the original verb was monosyllabic then the perfect replaces the with
- The associative indicates that two or more subjects are associated together in the action of the verb.
It is formed by suffixing .
This derivative formation is not regularly used with most verbs.
- attach, hook ⇒ be attached to each other, telecommunicate with one another
- do ⇒ ( (be done together)
The perfect simply replaces the final vowel with
- The reversive (or inversive) indicates an entire reversal of an action.
It is formed by suffixing (Proto-Bantu *-udud-) although several other dead formations exist, showing two sets of derivations into intransitive, transitive, and causative. These extensions, or at least their short forms as found in other languages (Proto-Bantu intransitive *-uk- and transitive *-ud-), are sometimes called the "separative" instead.
Dead reversive forms Type Intransitive Transitive Causative Short Full
- do ⇒ undo
Though the theory (and standard grammar) would dictate that this suffix forms its perfect by changing to , it often appears as instead, even in standard speech.
- The augmentative is a largely dead formation signifying an augmentation or extension of a verb.
It is indicated by suffixes similar to the dead full formation of the reversive .
- set apart ⇒ be distinct
- The extensive indicates performing the action repeatedly or extensively.
It is formed with the suffix but is limited in scope. It is primarily used with verbs signify discrete actions, causing them to be continuous or habitual. It is also sometimes heard doubled as , with the same meaning.
- jump ⇒ prance about
- do ⇒ do repeatedly
The perfect of this extension simply suffixes .
- The diminutive indicates an action done "a little."
It is indicated by reduplication, the form being determined by the length of the verb:
- Disyllabic verbs repeat the entire stem
- do ⇒ do slightly
- Monosyllabic verbs are repeated with the near-close near-front vowel (/ɪ/) between the stems. This form is almost never used
- eat ⇒ eat a little
- Polysyllabic verbs duplicate the first two syllables of the stem
- find ⇒ find somewhat
Note that this derivation pattern, like all other uses of reduplication in Bantu languages, is also sometimes used to indicate an intensification and/or repetition of an action — in these cases the actual meaning needs to be determined from context.
After the reduplication, the new verb may only have an underlying high tone on the first syllable (that is, only the phones of the first syllable are repeated, but not its tone).
- Disyllabic verbs repeat the entire stem
- The positional is a dead stative formation found in many verbs, mostly indicating bodily positions.
It is marked by the suffix (Proto-Bantu *-am-). Originally, this suffix was not used to derive new meanings as such, but rather to emphasise the stative positional nature of the verb.
The perfect of these verbs changes the to and indicates a continuous, current action instead of a completed one. Past tense may be indicated by multi-verbal conjugation.- lie face downwards ⇒ He is lying face down, He did assume a lying position, He was lying
- The stative extensive is a dead stative formation found in a few miscellaneous verbs, united by the fact that they all indicate states.
It is marked by the suffix (Proto-Bantu *-ad-). Originally, this suffix was not used to derive new meanings as such, but rather to emphasise the stative nature of the verb.
The perfect of these verbs changes the to and indicates a continuous, current action instead of a completed one. Past tense may be indicated by multi-verbal conjugation.- wonder ⇒ They are in awe, They did become amazed, They were amazed
- The contactive is a dead formation found in a few verbs, all indicating touch or contact of some sort.
It is marked by the suffix (Proto-Bantu *-at-). Originally, this suffix was not used to derive new meanings as such, but rather to emphasise or intensify the contactive nature of the verb.
The perfect of these verbs changes the to and indicates a continuous, current action instead of a completed one. Past tense may be indicated by multi-verbal conjugation.- wear ⇒ We are clothed, We did become dressed, We were dressed
Compounding of extensions
A verb may assume more than one extension, giving it a correspondingly more complex meaning.- watch X ⇒ causative cause Y to watch X ⇒ causative-applied cause Y to watch X on behalf of Z ⇒ causative-applied-reciprocal cause Y to watch X on behalf of each other
Though it may appear that the possibilities are endless, the truth is that the depth is limited by various factors. Apart from the obvious constraints of semantics
Semantics
Semantics is the study of meaning. It focuses on the relation between signifiers, such as words, phrases, signs and symbols, and what they stand for, their denotata....
(whether a complex meaning actually makes any sense and serves any possible purpose) and markedness
Markedness
Markedness is a specific kind of asymmetry relationship between elements of linguistic or conceptual structure. In a marked-unmarked relation, one term of an opposition is the broader, dominant one...
(how strange and complex the verb sounds to the native speaker), there are also restrictions on the order of the extensions.
If an extension increases the valency of a verb, any objects of the original verb are demoted and the new object is made principal.
- I watch the fields ⇒ I cause the children to watch the fields ⇒ I cause the children to watch the fields on behalf of the old woman (highly marked)
If an objectival concord is used instead of an object, the concord agrees with what would have been the principal object. Additionally, if the original object was also only indicated by an objectival concord, then it becomes demoted to an absolute pronoun (Sesotho verbs may only have one objectival concord).
- I watch them ( fields) ⇒ I cause them ( children) to watch them ⇒ I cause them to watch them on behalf of her ( grandmother, old woman) (highly marked)
(Note how the infix disappears when the verb is followed by a direct object, even if it is not the object indicated by the concord.)
Like all other Bantu languages, Sesotho has inherited certain restrictions on the order of the extensions. The most basic rule (which is broken by very few languages) is that the passive and the short causative always follow all the other extensions (including the perfect , which is always used with the final vowel ). Although it is probable that Proto-Bantu had fairly strict restrictions on the order of the other extensions, these rules have been relaxed somewhat in modern Bantu languages.
For example, since the causative is normally ordered closer to the verb stem than the reciprocal (or indeed, most other extensions), to form the causative of the reciprocal the (dead) short causative (Proto-Bantu *-î-) is usually used instead, therefore palatalizing the reciprocal to . Various other unexpected palatalizations and alveolarizations brought on by combinations of the causative with other extensions may be similarly explained by the action of the short causative either replacing the normal causative, or being used together with the long causative around another extension (causative + other extension ⇒ + other extension + *-î- ⇒ + modified extension).
Certain extensions (intensive, perfective, associative, reversive, and augmentative) are obviously fossilised compound extensions. Often a derived verb may continue being used while the original verb disappears from the language.
Note that, since prefixes are of the shape CV or V (where C represents a consonant and V a vowel), verb roots end without the final vowel, prefixes are of the shape (VC)* (* indicates possible repetition) and the final vowel simply has shape V, this and other structures reinforce the open syllable structure of the Bantu languages, and very few languages have broken it.
Non-verbal derivatives
Verbs may also, to a lesser degree, be derived from nouns, qualificatives, and ideophones.- Denominative verbs are stative verbs derived from nouns and qualificatives.
They are formed by suffixing (dead) or to the stem, giving a verb meaning "become...."
- intelligence ⇒ become intelligent
- soft (relative) ⇒ become soft
The monosyllabic adjectival roots (except some, and four) become nasalized before assuming the suffix. Furthermore, the vowel of (beautiful) changes to :- ugly ⇒ become ugly
- new ⇒ become renewed
- beautiful ⇒ become beautiful
- black ⇒ become black
Causatives are formed regularly by changing the suffix to . Perfects are formed regularly by changing the suffix to .
This extension (the long ) is quite rare in the Bantu languages, though all languages have a few verbs in this form even if it may no longer be active.
- Deideophonic verbs are formed rather irregularly from disyllabic ideophones.
They are miscellaneous in nature and are formed by the addition of several suffixes such as , , , , , , , etc.
However, common across the Bantu language group are the forms for the intransitive, for the transitive, and for the causative. Additionally, the causative of the intransitive may be formed regularly with the suffix , but this is usually not done if the causative form is regularly used.
- of turning over ⇒ flip over, experience a car accident
- of being completely full ⇒ burst open
- of picking up and throwing forward ⇒ (of large herbivores) stand up and move in a certain direction, and initiate a process or plan
When forming these verbs, the tone of the first syllable of the verb (its characteristic tone) corresponds to the tone of the first syllable of the part of the original word used to form the verb (usually the root, but a complete noun for monosyllabic roots). Thus verbs derived regularly from monosyllabic stems are all L verbs (due to the null toned prefix).
- easy, easyness [ _ _ ¯ ] ⇒ become easy (L verb)
- angry, anger [ _ ¯ _ ] ⇒ become angry (H verb)
- strong, strength [ _ _ ] ⇒ become strong (L verb)
Inflexion during conjugation
In addition to the verbal derivatives, the following changes may occur to the stem's suffix , during conjugation:- The changes to -e ([ɪ]) to form the perfect subjunctive tense and certain tenses of the negative conjugation. This vowel always causes the syllable carrying it to assume a high tone.
- The changes to -e ([ɛ]) to form the present-future tense of the subjunctive mood.
- The becomes to form the plural of the imperative and certain relative tenses.
- The becomes to form the perfect stem. Various phonological situations may change this basic construct.
The general rules for the formation of the perfect are varied due to various mostly phonological interactions with the suffix:
- Generally, is suffixed
- buy ⇒ bought
- Verbs ending in replace it with
- go ⇒ went
- For monosyllabic stems, i-stems suffix and e-stems suffix
- drink ⇒ drank
- Disyllabic verbs ending in change it to
- send ⇒ sent
- Polysyllabic verbs ending in , (most), , and cause the to alveolarise to
- wash ⇒ washed
- Verbs ending in of more than one syllable and disyllabic reciprocal verbs change the to
- sing ⇒ sang
and so forth...
For all verbs, however, the past tense may also be indicated with the simple (past subjunctive) multi-verbal conjugation, although its meaning does diverge somewhat from that of the perfect (especially with stative verbs)
- They did sing
Conjugation
Verbal conjugation is by far the most complex and varied topic in the Bantu languages. The tensesGrammatical tense
A tense is a grammatical category that locates a situation in time, to indicate when the situation takes place.Bernard Comrie, Aspect, 1976:6:...
are conjugated by means of prefixes and infixes indicating person, mood
Grammatical mood
In linguistics, grammatical mood is a grammatical feature of verbs, used to signal modality. That is, it is the use of verbal inflections that allow speakers to express their attitude toward what they are saying...
, implication, and aspect
Grammatical aspect
In linguistics, the grammatical aspect of a verb is a grammatical category that defines the temporal flow in a given action, event, or state, from the point of view of the speaker...
.
There are two conjugations, the positive and negative, and most tenses have corresponding forms in each. The language recognises four moods: the indicative, the subjunctive, the potential, and the participial sub-mood (infinitives are nouns and imperatives are interjectives). The moods may be divided into tenses according to time (remote past, immediate past, present, immediate future, and remote future) and implication (simple, progressive, and exclusive), which may be further subdivided according to aspect into indefinite, continuous, and perfect.
There are also many often complex compound tenses, indicated by changes in tone and the use of deficient verbs
Sesotho deficient verbs
In the Sesotho language, the deficient verbs are a special subset of Sesotho verbs that require a subordinate or complementary verb to complete their action, and which are used to form many tenses and to impart certain shades of meaning to the predicate...
(multi-verbal conjugations).
Import refers to how the object of the verb is indicated.
Verbs can be either:
- Intransitive, with no direct object
- I become quiet
- Transitive, with a single direct object
- I thank you
- DitransitiveDitransitive verbIn grammar, a ditransitive verb is a verb which takes a subject and two objects which refer to a recipient and a theme. According to certain linguistics considerations, these objects may be called direct and indirect, or primary and secondary...
, with two objects- I give my sibling food for the journey
- Locative, with a locative adverbial construction often indicated by /
- I enter my home
- Agentive verbs (usually passives), which need a copulative used as an agent adverb indicated by
- They are helped by the dictionary
- Instrumental verbs, which use an instrumental adverb indicated by
- We travel by car
- Conjunctive verbs (mostly reciprocals), which use the conjunctive proclitic
- We agree with them
Many verbs can have more than one import ( (walk) can be locative, instrumental, or conjunctive; (speak) can be intransitive, transitive, instrumental, or conjunctive) and verb derivatives can also change the import of the stem.
Many shades of meaning are achieved by the employment of deficient verbs in multi-verbal conjugations. Many tenses and moods may only be formed in this manner.
The verbal complex
In the Bantu languages, the typical full structure of verbs, excluding contractions, is as follows (the * indicates possible iteration):PI — SC — NEG — TM — AM — OC — ROOT — EXT* — FV │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ final vowel │ │ │ │ │ │ │ extensions │ │ │ │ │ │ vb. root │ │ │ │ │ objectival concord │ │ │ │ aspect marker │ │ │ tense marker │ │ negative │ subjectival concord pre-initial morpheme |
In Sesotho, as with most other Bantu languages, this has been modified somewhat, resulting in the following structure ("I shall no longer look on his behalf"):
PI — SC — A1 — A2 — OC — ROOT — EXT* — FV │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ final vowel │ │ │ │ │ │ extensions │ │ │ │ │ vb. root │ │ │ │ objectival concord │ │ │ second verbal auxiliary │ │ first verbal auxiliary │ subjectival concord pre-initial morpheme |
Though indicative tenses form their negatives with the prefix , many other moods and tenses form their negatives with an infix (either or , depending on the specific tense). The verbal auxiliary infixes are used to indicate tense, certain forms of the subjunctive, progressive implication, the potential mood, as well verb focus in the present indicative tense. The verbal infixes always follow the simple infixes, though there are some instances where two simple infixes are used at the same time.
The extensions include suffixes used in verbal derivatives as well as the perfect (which is always followed by the final vowel ).
With the exception of the verb root, each of these formatives is monosyllabic, but in Sesotho some verbal infixes (those that are contractions) and extensions (those which are obvious compoundings of earlier forms) also have more than one syllable.
Additionally, the structure (obj conc. + stem) is often called the "macrostem" in various syntactical and tonal theories.
Many aspects and tenses are indicated by multi-verbal conjugations and, with the exception of the subjectival concord, the root, and the final vowel, most of these formatives are not always necessary. Note that infinitives and imperatives (both of with do not have subjectival concords) may be considered separate parts of speech (nouns
Sesotho nouns
Sesotho nouns signify concrete or abstract concepts in the language, but are distinct from the Sesotho pronouns.Bantu languages are often said to have sentences which are "centred around the noun" due to the striking nature of the noun concordance system...
/gerunds and interjectives). Deficient verbs are never used with objectival concords, and the use of the other formatives with them is also limited.
This structure obviously ignores any possible enclitics which may be suffixed.
Tenses
The Sesotho tense system is somewhat less complex (though not necessarily less complicated) than that of other Bantu languages. Whereas many Bantu languages clearly divide the time into remote past, immediate past, present, immediate future, and remote future, not all Sesotho moods divide very clearly between immediate and remote tenses, and the differences in meaning are not as great.| Tense | Example |
|---|---|
| Present | I know the truth |
| Past perfect | I knew the truth |
| Immediate past | I just recently knew the truth |
| Immediate future | I shall know the truth soon |
| Future | I shall know the truth |
Moods
There are basically four moodsGrammatical mood
In linguistics, grammatical mood is a grammatical feature of verbs, used to signal modality. That is, it is the use of verbal inflections that allow speakers to express their attitude toward what they are saying...
.
- The indicative mood indicates what is, was, or will be. It uses the basic subjectival concord.
- The potential mood indicates that an action is possible. It uses similar concords to those of the subjunctive.
- The participial sub-mood is so-called since it has forms corresponding to the tenses of both the above moods (most of the indicative, but only the present potential). It is widely used after certain conjunctives, in forming the complements of numerous multi-verbal tenses, and in the formation of relative clauses.
- The subjunctive moodSubjunctive moodIn grammar, the subjunctive mood is a verb mood typically used in subordinate clauses to express various states of irreality such as wish, emotion, possibility, judgment, opinion, necessity, or action that has not yet occurred....
is used in subordinate or consecutive constructions, in many cases being parallel in usage to the LatinLatinLatin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
subjunctive.
| Mood | Positive | Negative |
|---|---|---|
| Indicative | I know the truth | I do not know the truth |
| Potential | I may know the truth | I may not know the truth |
| Participial | ...while I know the truth | ...while I do not know the truth |
| Subjunctive | ...so I may know the truth | ...so I may not know the truth |
Implication
Within the indicative and participial moods, tenses may be further sub-divided according to the implication of the action.- The simple implication indicates an action in no way qualified.
- The progressive implication indicates an ongoing action.
- The exclusive implication indicates an action which has not been happening until now.
| Implication | Example |
|---|---|
| Simple | I know the truth |
| Progressive | I still know the truth |
| Exclusive | I now know the truth |
Aspects
The tenses may be further divided according to the aspectGrammatical aspect
In linguistics, the grammatical aspect of a verb is a grammatical category that defines the temporal flow in a given action, event, or state, from the point of view of the speaker...
of the action. In Sesotho there are at least three aspects, the definite, the continuous, and the perfect.
| Aspect | Example |
|---|---|
| Definite | I did know |
| Continuous | I knew |
| Perfect | I had known |
Deficient verbs
Deficient verbs, so called because they require a subordinate or complementary verb to complete their action, are used to form many tenses and to impart certain shades of meaning. They form part of multi-verbal conjugations consisting of a string of verbs, each with its own subjectival concord.Deficient verbs, being "deficient", are never used alone. Many of them are irregular in form and have irregular inflexions. Monosyllabic deficient verbs are never used with the penultimate that is sometimes used with normal verbs (not to be confused with the indefinite concord).
Many of these verbs seem radical in nature, while others (especially those with complex implications) are obviously derived from certain extant normal verbs (but are used with slightly different meanings). What distinguishes the deficient usage of these normal verbs is the fact that they are followed directly by another verb and affect its meaning (and only the main verb may carry an objectival concord).
- I no longer know
- I knew
- I shall (at some specific time) know
- I should/would have known
- I may indeed know
- I will at least know
- I may still know
- I nearly knew
- I shall no longer know
- I have to know