Second language phonology
Encyclopedia
Second language
(L2
) phonology
is different from first language
(L1
) phonology
in various ways. The differences are considered to come from general characteristics of L2, such as slower speech rate (Derwing and Munro, 1997) and lower proficiency than native speakers, and also from the interaction between nonnative speakers’ L1 and L2.
Research on L2 phonology has been done not only on segment
s (Best, 1994, 1995; Flege, 1986, 1991, 1995; Iverson and Kuhl, 1995, 1996; Kuhl 1991), but also on prosody
(Archibald, 1995; Derwing and Munro, 1997; Flege and Bohn, 1989; Magen, 1998; McGory, 1997; Mennen, 2004; Willems, 1982). L2 prosody
, like L2 segments, has been studied in terms of its global characteristics and L1-L2 interactions.
speech rate is typically slower than native speech. For example, Mandarin Chinese speakers’ speech rate in an English utterance
is slower than native English speakers’ speech rate (Derwing and Munro, 1995), and speech rates in a sentence
by highly experienced Italian
and Korean
nonnative speakers of English are slower than that of native English speakers' (Guion et al., 2000). In this study, the main factor of the slower speech rate for the Italian and Korean accented English was the durations of the vowels and sonorant consonants
(Guion et al., 2000). Another source of the slower speech rate in L2 speech is that L2 speakers tend to not reduce function words, such as "the" or "and," as much as native speakers (Aoyama and Guion, 2007). The generally slower speech rate in L2 speech is correlated with the degree of perceived foreign accent
by native listeners (Derwing and Munro, 1997).
speech is influenced by the speaker’s L1
background. Such influences have been explored in relation to many prosodic features, such as pitch
perception
and pitch excursion (Beckman, 1986; Aoyama and Guion, 2007), stress
placement (Archibald, 1995, 1998a, 1998b; Flege and Bohn, 1989; Archibald, 1997), syllable
structure (Broselow and Park, 1995; Broslow, 1988; Eckman, 1991), and tone
(Sereno and Wang, 2007; Guion and Pederson, 2007).
, Japanese
nonnative speakers of English tend to rely only on F0, or pitch
of the accented syllables, while native speakers use F0, duration
, and amplitude
(Beckman, 1986). This finding was confirmed in production, by showing that the excursions of F0 of English content words were larger for Japanese nonnative speakers of English than for native English speakers (Aoyama and Guion, 2007).
In both studies, the reason for this phenomenon was proposed to be related to the characteristics of the nonnative speakers’ L1
, Japanese. Japanese
is a mora-timed language, and because of this, longer syllable
duration makes a phonological difference in Japanese. Therefore, when expressing stress
in Japanese, Japanese speakers may rely more on F0 than duration
, which is a critical cue for a different phonological distinction. This L1
characteristic might interfere with Japanese speakers’ perception
and production of English, which is a stress-timed language and might be free of such durational restrictions.
to L2
was also found in stress
placement on words. Hungarian learners of English tend to place initial stress
on English
words that do not have initial stress
, because Hungarian
has fixed initial stress
and this is transferred to Hungarian speakers' L2
English prosody
(Archibald, 1995; 1998a; 1998b). Spanish
speakers of English were found not to stress target stressed syllables in English, and this might be due to the lack of stress in Spanish cognates and the lexical similarity between Spanish and English words (Flege and Bohn, 1989). In addition, it is suggested that speakers of tone languages (e.g., Chinese
) and pitch-accent languages (e.g., Japanese
), both of which use pitch
as a phonologically meaningful item, do not compute stress
placement in English, but rather store the stress information lexically (Archibald, 1997).
speakers can also perceive some innate characteristics of the L2
, which lead to different repair strategies for different phonological patterns. Korean
L2
speakers of English add an extra final vowel to some English words but not to all (Broslow and Park, 1995), as in (1).
(1) Korean pronunciations of English words
The problem is that modern Korean
does not have a phonological vowel length
difference, and Korean speakers show their own repair mechanism for English
minimal pairs that have tense/lax
difference, by adding an extra final vowel to English words with tense vowels. This might be because Korean learners of English attempt to preserve the mora
count of the original English word, by adding an extra final vowel to words that have two moras (Broslow and Park, 1995). The syllable
structure of such a word might look like in (2)
(2) Syllable structure of English “beat” by Korean nonnative speakers of English (adapted from Broslow and Park, 1995).
listeners show different patterns of tone
perception in tone languages, such as Mandarin Chinese. In Guion and Pederson (2007), native
listeners of Mandarin judged the similarity of synthesized Mandarin tones on the basis of both F0
and F0 slope, while English and Japanese listeners used only F0, not F0 slope. However, it was also observed that late learners of Mandarin showed similar patterns of tone perception as native listeners of Mandarin, focusing on both F0 and F0 slope of the tones. This suggests that L2
learners can learn to attend to the cues that L1
speakers use for the tone distinction.
The possibility of learning new L2
prosodic distinction was further explored in a training study on Mandarin tones (Sereno and Wang, 2007). English L2
listeners’ perception and production of Mandarin tones improved after perceptual training, and this was observed both behaviorally and cortically
: L2
listeners’ accuracy of tone perception and production improved, and increased activity of language areas in the left hemisphere (superior temporal gyrus
) and neighboring effects on relevant neural areas were observed.
Willems (1982): size and direction of pitch movements
Korean and Mandarin Englishes
McGory (1977): nonnatives put pitch accents both on prominent and less prominent words, f0 patterns of statements and questions indistinct, different L1 backgrounds showed different error patterns
Dutch Greek
Ineke Mennen (2004): Both L1 and L2 influence each other in terms of phonetic realization of phonological intonation.
Second language
A second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas ....
(L2
Second language
A second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas ....
) phonology
Phonology
Phonology is, broadly speaking, the subdiscipline of linguistics concerned with the sounds of language. That is, it is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use...
is different from first language
First language
A first language is the language a person has learned from birth or within the critical period, or that a person speaks the best and so is often the basis for sociolinguistic identity...
(L1
First language
A first language is the language a person has learned from birth or within the critical period, or that a person speaks the best and so is often the basis for sociolinguistic identity...
) phonology
Phonology
Phonology is, broadly speaking, the subdiscipline of linguistics concerned with the sounds of language. That is, it is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use...
in various ways. The differences are considered to come from general characteristics of L2, such as slower speech rate (Derwing and Munro, 1997) and lower proficiency than native speakers, and also from the interaction between nonnative speakers’ L1 and L2.
Research on L2 phonology has been done not only on segment
Segment (linguistics)
In linguistics , the term segment may be defined as "any discrete unit that can be identified, either physically or auditorily, in the stream of speech."- Classifying speech units :...
s (Best, 1994, 1995; Flege, 1986, 1991, 1995; Iverson and Kuhl, 1995, 1996; Kuhl 1991), but also on prosody
Prosody (linguistics)
In linguistics, prosody is the rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech. Prosody may reflect various features of the speaker or the utterance: the emotional state of the speaker; the form of the utterance ; the presence of irony or sarcasm; emphasis, contrast, and focus; or other elements of...
(Archibald, 1995; Derwing and Munro, 1997; Flege and Bohn, 1989; Magen, 1998; McGory, 1997; Mennen, 2004; Willems, 1982). L2 prosody
Prosody (linguistics)
In linguistics, prosody is the rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech. Prosody may reflect various features of the speaker or the utterance: the emotional state of the speaker; the form of the utterance ; the presence of irony or sarcasm; emphasis, contrast, and focus; or other elements of...
, like L2 segments, has been studied in terms of its global characteristics and L1-L2 interactions.
Speech rate
L2Second language
A second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas ....
speech rate is typically slower than native speech. For example, Mandarin Chinese speakers’ speech rate in an English utterance
Utterance
In spoken language analysis an utterance is a complete unit of speech. It is generally but not always bounded by silence.It can be represented and delineated in written language in many ways. Note that in such areas of research utterances do not exist in written language, only their representations...
is slower than native English speakers’ speech rate (Derwing and Munro, 1995), and speech rates in a sentence
Sentence (linguistics)
In the field of linguistics, a sentence is an expression in natural language, and often defined to indicate a grammatical unit consisting of one or more words that generally bear minimal syntactic relation to the words that precede or follow it...
by highly experienced Italian
Italian people
The Italian people are an ethnic group that share a common Italian culture, ancestry and speak the Italian language as a mother tongue. Within Italy, Italians are defined by citizenship, regardless of ancestry or country of residence , and are distinguished from people...
and Korean
Korean people
The Korean people are an ethnic group originating in the Korean peninsula and Manchuria. Koreans are one of the most ethnically and linguistically homogeneous groups in the world.-Names:...
nonnative speakers of English are slower than that of native English speakers' (Guion et al., 2000). In this study, the main factor of the slower speech rate for the Italian and Korean accented English was the durations of the vowels and sonorant consonants
Sonorant
In phonetics and phonology, a sonorant is a speech sound that is produced without turbulent airflow in the vocal tract; fricatives and plosives are not sonorants. Vowels are sonorants, as are consonants like and . Other consonants, like or , restrict the airflow enough to cause turbulence, and...
(Guion et al., 2000). Another source of the slower speech rate in L2 speech is that L2 speakers tend to not reduce function words, such as "the" or "and," as much as native speakers (Aoyama and Guion, 2007). The generally slower speech rate in L2 speech is correlated with the degree of perceived foreign accent
Accent (linguistics)
In linguistics, an accent is a manner of pronunciation peculiar to a particular individual, location, or nation.An accent may identify the locality in which its speakers reside , the socio-economic status of its speakers, their ethnicity, their caste or social class, their first language In...
by native listeners (Derwing and Munro, 1997).
Influence of L1 to L2 prosody
L2Second language
A second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas ....
speech is influenced by the speaker’s L1
First language
A first language is the language a person has learned from birth or within the critical period, or that a person speaks the best and so is often the basis for sociolinguistic identity...
background. Such influences have been explored in relation to many prosodic features, such as pitch
Pitch accent
Pitch accent is a linguistic term of convenience for a variety of restricted tone systems that use variations in pitch to give prominence to a syllable or mora within a word. The placement of this tone or the way it is realized can give different meanings to otherwise similar words...
perception
Perception
Perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of the environment by organizing and interpreting sensory information. All perception involves signals in the nervous system, which in turn result from physical stimulation of the sense organs...
and pitch excursion (Beckman, 1986; Aoyama and Guion, 2007), stress
Stress (linguistics)
In linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word, or to certain words in a phrase or sentence. The term is also used for similar patterns of phonetic prominence inside syllables. The word accent is sometimes also used with this sense.The stress placed...
placement (Archibald, 1995, 1998a, 1998b; Flege and Bohn, 1989; Archibald, 1997), syllable
Syllable
A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. For example, the word water is composed of two syllables: wa and ter. A syllable is typically made up of a syllable nucleus with optional initial and final margins .Syllables are often considered the phonological "building...
structure (Broselow and Park, 1995; Broslow, 1988; Eckman, 1991), and tone
Tone (linguistics)
Tone is the use of pitch in language to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning—that is, to distinguish or inflect words. All verbal languages use pitch to express emotional and other paralinguistic information, and to convey emphasis, contrast, and other such features in what is called...
(Sereno and Wang, 2007; Guion and Pederson, 2007).
Pitch perception and pitch excursions
When perceiving accented syllables in EnglishEnglish language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
, Japanese
Japanese people
The are an ethnic group originating in the Japanese archipelago and are the predominant ethnic group of Japan. Worldwide, approximately 130 million people are of Japanese descent; of these, approximately 127 million are residents of Japan. People of Japanese ancestry who live in other countries...
nonnative speakers of English tend to rely only on F0, or pitch
Pitch accent
Pitch accent is a linguistic term of convenience for a variety of restricted tone systems that use variations in pitch to give prominence to a syllable or mora within a word. The placement of this tone or the way it is realized can give different meanings to otherwise similar words...
of the accented syllables, while native speakers use F0, duration
Length (phonetics)
In phonetics, length or quantity is a feature of sounds that are distinctively longer than other sounds. There are long vowels as well as long consonants .Many languages do not have distinctive length...
, and amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude is the magnitude of change in the oscillating variable with each oscillation within an oscillating system. For example, sound waves in air are oscillations in atmospheric pressure and their amplitudes are proportional to the change in pressure during one oscillation...
(Beckman, 1986). This finding was confirmed in production, by showing that the excursions of F0 of English content words were larger for Japanese nonnative speakers of English than for native English speakers (Aoyama and Guion, 2007).
In both studies, the reason for this phenomenon was proposed to be related to the characteristics of the nonnative speakers’ L1
First language
A first language is the language a person has learned from birth or within the critical period, or that a person speaks the best and so is often the basis for sociolinguistic identity...
, Japanese. Japanese
Japanese language
is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is a member of the Japonic language family, which has a number of proposed relationships with other languages, none of which has gained wide acceptance among historical linguists .Japanese is an...
is a mora-timed language, and because of this, longer syllable
Syllable
A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. For example, the word water is composed of two syllables: wa and ter. A syllable is typically made up of a syllable nucleus with optional initial and final margins .Syllables are often considered the phonological "building...
duration makes a phonological difference in Japanese. Therefore, when expressing stress
Stress (linguistics)
In linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word, or to certain words in a phrase or sentence. The term is also used for similar patterns of phonetic prominence inside syllables. The word accent is sometimes also used with this sense.The stress placed...
in Japanese, Japanese speakers may rely more on F0 than duration
Length (phonetics)
In phonetics, length or quantity is a feature of sounds that are distinctively longer than other sounds. There are long vowels as well as long consonants .Many languages do not have distinctive length...
, which is a critical cue for a different phonological distinction. This L1
First language
A first language is the language a person has learned from birth or within the critical period, or that a person speaks the best and so is often the basis for sociolinguistic identity...
characteristic might interfere with Japanese speakers’ perception
Perception
Perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of the environment by organizing and interpreting sensory information. All perception involves signals in the nervous system, which in turn result from physical stimulation of the sense organs...
and production of English, which is a stress-timed language and might be free of such durational restrictions.
Stress Placement on words
Influence from L1First language
A first language is the language a person has learned from birth or within the critical period, or that a person speaks the best and so is often the basis for sociolinguistic identity...
to L2
Second language
A second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas ....
was also found in stress
Stress (linguistics)
In linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word, or to certain words in a phrase or sentence. The term is also used for similar patterns of phonetic prominence inside syllables. The word accent is sometimes also used with this sense.The stress placed...
placement on words. Hungarian learners of English tend to place initial stress
Stress (linguistics)
In linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word, or to certain words in a phrase or sentence. The term is also used for similar patterns of phonetic prominence inside syllables. The word accent is sometimes also used with this sense.The stress placed...
on English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
words that do not have initial stress
Stress (linguistics)
In linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word, or to certain words in a phrase or sentence. The term is also used for similar patterns of phonetic prominence inside syllables. The word accent is sometimes also used with this sense.The stress placed...
, because Hungarian
Hungarian language
Hungarian is a Uralic language, part of the Ugric group. With some 14 million speakers, it is one of the most widely spoken non-Indo-European languages in Europe....
has fixed initial stress
Stress (linguistics)
In linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word, or to certain words in a phrase or sentence. The term is also used for similar patterns of phonetic prominence inside syllables. The word accent is sometimes also used with this sense.The stress placed...
and this is transferred to Hungarian speakers' L2
Second language
A second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas ....
English prosody
Prosody (linguistics)
In linguistics, prosody is the rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech. Prosody may reflect various features of the speaker or the utterance: the emotional state of the speaker; the form of the utterance ; the presence of irony or sarcasm; emphasis, contrast, and focus; or other elements of...
(Archibald, 1995; 1998a; 1998b). Spanish
Spanish people
The Spanish are citizens of the Kingdom of Spain. Within Spain, there are also a number of vigorous nationalisms and regionalisms, reflecting the country's complex history....
speakers of English were found not to stress target stressed syllables in English, and this might be due to the lack of stress in Spanish cognates and the lexical similarity between Spanish and English words (Flege and Bohn, 1989). In addition, it is suggested that speakers of tone languages (e.g., Chinese
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
) and pitch-accent languages (e.g., Japanese
Japanese language
is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is a member of the Japonic language family, which has a number of proposed relationships with other languages, none of which has gained wide acceptance among historical linguists .Japanese is an...
), both of which use pitch
Pitch accent
Pitch accent is a linguistic term of convenience for a variety of restricted tone systems that use variations in pitch to give prominence to a syllable or mora within a word. The placement of this tone or the way it is realized can give different meanings to otherwise similar words...
as a phonologically meaningful item, do not compute stress
Stress (linguistics)
In linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word, or to certain words in a phrase or sentence. The term is also used for similar patterns of phonetic prominence inside syllables. The word accent is sometimes also used with this sense.The stress placed...
placement in English, but rather store the stress information lexically (Archibald, 1997).
Syllable Structure
L2Second language
A second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas ....
speakers can also perceive some innate characteristics of the L2
Second language
A second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas ....
, which lead to different repair strategies for different phonological patterns. Korean
Korean people
The Korean people are an ethnic group originating in the Korean peninsula and Manchuria. Koreans are one of the most ethnically and linguistically homogeneous groups in the world.-Names:...
L2
Second language
A second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas ....
speakers of English add an extra final vowel to some English words but not to all (Broslow and Park, 1995), as in (1).
(1) Korean pronunciations of English words
| Korean accented pronunciation | English word | Korean accented pronunciation | English word |
|---|---|---|---|
| bithi | “beat” | bit | “bit” |
| chiphi | “cheap” | thip | “tip” |
| phikhi | “peak” | phik | “pick” |
| ruthi | “route” | gut | “good” |
| khothi | “coat” | buk | “book” |
The problem is that modern Korean
Korean language
Korean is the official language of the country Korea, in both South and North. It is also one of the two official languages in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in People's Republic of China. There are about 78 million Korean speakers worldwide. In the 15th century, a national writing...
does not have a phonological vowel length
Vowel length
In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. Often the chroneme, or the "longness", acts like a consonant, and may etymologically be one, such as in Australian English. While not distinctive in most dialects of English, vowel length is an important phonemic factor in...
difference, and Korean speakers show their own repair mechanism for English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
minimal pairs that have tense/lax
Tenseness
In phonology, tenseness is a particular vowel quality that is phonemically contrastive in many languages, including English. It has also occasionally been used to describe contrasts in consonants. Unlike most distinctive features, the feature [tense] can be interpreted only relatively, that is, in...
difference, by adding an extra final vowel to English words with tense vowels. This might be because Korean learners of English attempt to preserve the mora
Mora (linguistics)
Mora is a unit in phonology that determines syllable weight, which in some languages determines stress or timing. As with many technical linguistic terms, the definition of a mora varies. Perhaps the most succinct working definition was provided by the American linguist James D...
count of the original English word, by adding an extra final vowel to words that have two moras (Broslow and Park, 1995). The syllable
Syllable
A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. For example, the word water is composed of two syllables: wa and ter. A syllable is typically made up of a syllable nucleus with optional initial and final margins .Syllables are often considered the phonological "building...
structure of such a word might look like in (2)
(2) Syllable structure of English “beat” by Korean nonnative speakers of English (adapted from Broslow and Park, 1995).
Tone: L2 perception, production, and learning
L2Second language
A second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas ....
listeners show different patterns of tone
Tone (linguistics)
Tone is the use of pitch in language to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning—that is, to distinguish or inflect words. All verbal languages use pitch to express emotional and other paralinguistic information, and to convey emphasis, contrast, and other such features in what is called...
perception in tone languages, such as Mandarin Chinese. In Guion and Pederson (2007), native
Native Speaker
Native Speaker is Chang-Rae Lee’s first novel. In Native Speaker, he creates a man named Henry Park who tries to assimilate into American society and become a “native speaker.”-Plot summary:...
listeners of Mandarin judged the similarity of synthesized Mandarin tones on the basis of both F0
Fundamental frequency
The fundamental frequency, often referred to simply as the fundamental and abbreviated f0, is defined as the lowest frequency of a periodic waveform. In terms of a superposition of sinusoids The fundamental frequency, often referred to simply as the fundamental and abbreviated f0, is defined as the...
and F0 slope, while English and Japanese listeners used only F0, not F0 slope. However, it was also observed that late learners of Mandarin showed similar patterns of tone perception as native listeners of Mandarin, focusing on both F0 and F0 slope of the tones. This suggests that L2
Second language
A second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas ....
learners can learn to attend to the cues that L1
First language
A first language is the language a person has learned from birth or within the critical period, or that a person speaks the best and so is often the basis for sociolinguistic identity...
speakers use for the tone distinction.
The possibility of learning new L2
Second language
A second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas ....
prosodic distinction was further explored in a training study on Mandarin tones (Sereno and Wang, 2007). English L2
Second language
A second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas ....
listeners’ perception and production of Mandarin tones improved after perceptual training, and this was observed both behaviorally and cortically
Cerebral cortex
The cerebral cortex is a sheet of neural tissue that is outermost to the cerebrum of the mammalian brain. It plays a key role in memory, attention, perceptual awareness, thought, language, and consciousness. It is constituted of up to six horizontal layers, each of which has a different...
: L2
Second language
A second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas ....
listeners’ accuracy of tone perception and production improved, and increased activity of language areas in the left hemisphere (superior temporal gyrus
Superior temporal gyrus
The superior temporal gyrus is one of three gyri in the temporal lobe of the human brain, which is located laterally to the head, situated somewhat above the external ear.The superior temporal gyrus is bounded by:* the lateral sulcus above;...
) and neighboring effects on relevant neural areas were observed.
Intonation
Dutch EnglishWillems (1982): size and direction of pitch movements
Korean and Mandarin Englishes
McGory (1977): nonnatives put pitch accents both on prominent and less prominent words, f0 patterns of statements and questions indistinct, different L1 backgrounds showed different error patterns
L2 to L1
Phonetic Realization of Phonological IntonationDutch Greek
Ineke Mennen (2004): Both L1 and L2 influence each other in terms of phonetic realization of phonological intonation.