Postbiological evolution
Encyclopedia
Post-biological evolution is the way in which a biological civilisation will change into a technology based civilisation. This involves the change from biological entity to machine based, and then how these machines might themselves evolve.
; this was suggested by Dr Steven J Dick.
“The maintenance, improvement and perpetuation of knowledge and intelligence is the central driving force of cultural evolution, and that to the extent intelligence can be improved, it will be improved” (Dick 1996)
If cultural evolution progresses in this direction then due to cultural evolution being much faster than biological, the limiting factor becomes our biology and the capability of our brains. Currently the closest and so most probable solution to this problem is Artificial Intelligence
, (AI). Experts in AI even believe it holds the potential and capability for a postbiological earth in the next several generations, (Moravec 1988, 1999). AI could be utilised to solve scientific problems and to analyse situations much faster and more accurately than our own minds.
The first route requires a high level of technology, therefore would take a long time, this results in another possible road to a completely postbiological civilisation (PBC). The other route is the complete replacement of human consciousness by AI, for this the human race would die out, replaced by our own creation of AI. There are many reasons for this route such as natural disaster, disease, war which would result in the loss of the human species but an AI could survive due to its robustness.
The future of the human race through cultural evolution is not known and the possible postbiological outcomes are infinite, so to address what we could evolve into is almost futile. But Hans Moravec
predicted that;
“What awaits us is not oblivion but rather a future which, from our present vantage point, is best described as ‘postbiological’ or even ‘supernatural’. It is a world swept away by the tide of cultural change, usurped by its own artificial progeny”
E=KIT
Where K is a constant. Therefore the greater the temperature the greater the energy needed, and so the greater the inefficiency is also. If we now apply the Intelligence principle to this then a PBC would move to decrease the temperature and so increase the efficiency and computational power.
In the universe the greatest source of heat transfer is via radiation
, therefore a PBC would look to migrate to an area of low radiation and so low temperature. If we now observe the galaxy we see that the most radiation is generated by the galactic centre by both the high stellar density and also highly energetic events such as supernova
. Therefore the coldest regions are away from the galactic centre or inside giant molecular clouds. Giant molecular clouds although being very low in temperature (T~10K) are areas of giant star formation and so the temperature in one location is irregular, which would make it unsuitable for a PBC.
in stars is highly inefficient, converting only a small amount of hydrogen to heaver nuclei and the high loss of energy that is produced in the nuclear fusion
. Therefore a PBC would most likely have the capability to produce heavier nuclei through controlled fusion and minimise the energy lost.
.
for a PBC to arise other than our own and be present, we must make five assumptions;
1) That evolution by natural selection results in intelligence beyond the earth;
2) That extraterrestrial intelligence is older than human intelligence;
3) That intelligence results in culture;
4) That culture evolves; and
5) That increasing intelligence is a central goal of cultural evolution.
, and the timescale over which intelligent biological life can form. Around 1 Billion years after the start of the universe
the first sun-like star had formed, and there were enough heavy elements around for planet formation (1998, Larson and Bromm 2001). From the earth we know that intelligent life can form within 5 billion years, this puts a lower time scale on which intelligent life can form, 6 billion years. And from the current rate of technological progression the leap from intelligent life to a PBC is negligible compared to the astronomical timescale. This means we could already be looking at a postbiological universe. In our own galaxy the first sun-like stars formed at around 4 billion years therefore we could already have a PBC in our galaxy that formed 3-4 billion years ago.
because of the almost infinite possible forms a PBC could take and our lack of understanding of these we would effectively be blind in this search. For this reason even though there is a logical argument for the existence of PBCs our best hopes remain with looking for biological life.
, it is used most often to refer to the general application of the convergence
of nanotechnology
, biotechnology
, information technology
and cognitive science
(NBIC) to improve human performance
.
Since the 1990s, several academics (such as some of the fellows of the Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies
) have risen to become cogent advocates of the case for human enhancement while other academics (such as the members of President Bush's Council on Bioethics
) have become its most outspoken critics.
Advocacy of the case for human enhancement is increasingly becoming synonymous with “transhumanism
”, a controversial ideology and movement which has emerged to support the recognition and protection of the right of citizens to either maintain or modify
their own mind
s and bodies
; so as to guarantee them the freedom of choice
and informed consent
of using human enhancement technologies on themselves and their children.
Neuromarketing
consultant Zack Lynch argues that neurotechnologies will have a more immediate effect on society than gene therapy
and will face less resistance as a pathway of radical human enhancement. He also argues that the concept of "enablement" needs to be added to the debate over "therapy" versus "enhancement".
Although many proposals of human enhancement rely on fringe science
, the very notion and prospect of human enhancement has sparked public controversy
.
Many critics argue that "human enhancement" is a loaded
term which has eugenic overtones because it may imply the improvement of human hereditary traits to attain a universally accepted norm
of biological fitness
(at the possible expense of human biodiversity
and neurodiversity
), and therefore can evoke negative reactions far beyond the specific meaning of the term. Furthermore, they conclude that enhancements which are self-evidently good, like "fewer diseases", are more the exception than the norm and even these may involve ethical tradeoffs, as the controversy about ADHD
arguably demonstrates.
However, the most common criticism of human enhancement is that it is or will often be practiced with a reckless
and selfish
short-term perspective that is ignorant of the long-term consequences on individuals and the rest of society, such as the fear that some enhancements will create unfair physical or mental advantages to those who can and will use them, or unequal access to such enhancements can and will further the gulf between the "haves" and "have-nots".
Accordingly, some advocates, who want to use more neutral language, and advance the public interest
in so-called "human enhancement technologies", prefer the term "enablement" over "enhancement"; defend and promote rigorous, independent safety testing of enabling technologies; as well as affordable, universal access to these technologies.
Cultural Evolution
The dictionary definition of Evolution is any process of formation, growth or development. In Biological evolution the main principle behind this development is survival, we evolved to become stronger and quicker, we also evolved to become intelligent. But as we became intelligent biological evolution subsided to a new concept, Cultural evolution. Cultural evolution moves at a much faster rate than biological evolution and this is one reason why it isn’t very well understood. But as survival is still the main driving force behind life and that intelligence and knowledge is currently the most important factor for that survival, we can reasonably assume that cultural evolution will progress in the direction of furthering intelligence and knowledge.Intelligence Principle
Cultural evolution progressing in this way and being based upon the furthering of intelligence is known as the intelligence principleIntelligence Principle
The Intelligence Principle is a hypothetical central idea of cultural evolution.Devised by the historian of science Steven J. Dick, and outlined in his 2003 paper "Cultural Evolution, the Postbiological Universe and SETI," the Intelligence Principle describes a potential binding tendency among all...
; this was suggested by Dr Steven J Dick.
“The maintenance, improvement and perpetuation of knowledge and intelligence is the central driving force of cultural evolution, and that to the extent intelligence can be improved, it will be improved” (Dick 1996)
If cultural evolution progresses in this direction then due to cultural evolution being much faster than biological, the limiting factor becomes our biology and the capability of our brains. Currently the closest and so most probable solution to this problem is Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to create it. AI textbooks define the field as "the study and design of intelligent agents" where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its...
, (AI). Experts in AI even believe it holds the potential and capability for a postbiological earth in the next several generations, (Moravec 1988, 1999). AI could be utilised to solve scientific problems and to analyse situations much faster and more accurately than our own minds.
Transition to purely Postbiological
The move to a complete postbiological stage has two different routes. One route is the change of human consciousness from a biological vessel into a mechanical; this would require the digitisation of human consciousness. A mechanical based vessel would increase the computational power and intelligence of the human consciousness exponentially, and also eliminate the weakness of a biological form. This route is therefore a logical progression through cultural evolution with survival and the pursuit of knowledge and intelligence at its centre.The first route requires a high level of technology, therefore would take a long time, this results in another possible road to a completely postbiological civilisation (PBC). The other route is the complete replacement of human consciousness by AI, for this the human race would die out, replaced by our own creation of AI. There are many reasons for this route such as natural disaster, disease, war which would result in the loss of the human species but an AI could survive due to its robustness.
The future of the human race through cultural evolution is not known and the possible postbiological outcomes are infinite, so to address what we could evolve into is almost futile. But Hans Moravec
Hans Moravec
Hans Moravec is an adjunct faculty member at the Robotics Institute of Carnegie Mellon University. He is known for his work on robotics, artificial intelligence, and writings on the impact of technology. Moravec also is a futurist with many of his publications and predictions focusing on...
predicted that;
“What awaits us is not oblivion but rather a future which, from our present vantage point, is best described as ‘postbiological’ or even ‘supernatural’. It is a world swept away by the tide of cultural change, usurped by its own artificial progeny”
Evolution of a postbiolgical universe
The possible forms a PBC may take are as diverse as in biological evolution, if not more. But from our knowledge of technology and with the intelligence principle being the main driving force we may make some predictions.Heat Dispersion
The current major limitations imposed upon computation are limited storage space, processing power, dust gathering chips, inefficiency of their human operators and heat dispersion. The only one that is fundamental and fixed is heat dispersion because this is due to the laws of physics. In computation the greater the amount of information to be calculated, (I) the greater the energy needed (E), but the energy needed is also proportional to another factor, the temperature, (T).E=KIT
Where K is a constant. Therefore the greater the temperature the greater the energy needed, and so the greater the inefficiency is also. If we now apply the Intelligence principle to this then a PBC would move to decrease the temperature and so increase the efficiency and computational power.
In the universe the greatest source of heat transfer is via radiation
Radiation
In physics, radiation is a process in which energetic particles or energetic waves travel through a medium or space. There are two distinct types of radiation; ionizing and non-ionizing...
, therefore a PBC would look to migrate to an area of low radiation and so low temperature. If we now observe the galaxy we see that the most radiation is generated by the galactic centre by both the high stellar density and also highly energetic events such as supernova
Supernova
A supernova is a stellar explosion that is more energetic than a nova. It is pronounced with the plural supernovae or supernovas. Supernovae are extremely luminous and cause a burst of radiation that often briefly outshines an entire galaxy, before fading from view over several weeks or months...
. Therefore the coldest regions are away from the galactic centre or inside giant molecular clouds. Giant molecular clouds although being very low in temperature (T~10K) are areas of giant star formation and so the temperature in one location is irregular, which would make it unsuitable for a PBC.
Metals
Another factor affecting a PBC would be the abundance of metals and heavier elements needed for expansion and repair. The highest concentration of these elements is found near the galactic centre, where they are created by massive stars. But to a PBC with advanced technology the production of metals via stellar nucleosynthesisStellar nucleosynthesis
Stellar nucleosynthesis is the collective term for the nuclear reactions taking place in stars to build the nuclei of the elements heavier than hydrogen. Some small quantity of these reactions also occur on the stellar surface under various circumstances...
in stars is highly inefficient, converting only a small amount of hydrogen to heaver nuclei and the high loss of energy that is produced in the nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion is the process by which two or more atomic nuclei join together, or "fuse", to form a single heavier nucleus. This is usually accompanied by the release or absorption of large quantities of energy...
. Therefore a PBC would most likely have the capability to produce heavier nuclei through controlled fusion and minimise the energy lost.
Galactic Technological Zone
By taking the two factors of heat dispersion and heavy nuclei into account we can find a “Galactic technological zone” (GTZ), similar to the principle of a “Galactic Habitable Zone” (GHZ) for biological life. Where temperatures are low enough to maximise computing efficiency but there is also matter available for fusion, this most likely lies on the outskirts of the galaxyGalaxy
A galaxy is a massive, gravitationally bound system that consists of stars and stellar remnants, an interstellar medium of gas and dust, and an important but poorly understood component tentatively dubbed dark matter. The word galaxy is derived from the Greek galaxias , literally "milky", a...
.
Migration Theory
A Migration hypothesis exists that takes the GTZ into account. A PBC would most likely not think on a similar time scale to us, therefore although a migration to GTZ may seem inefficient and lengthy to us, a PBC could consider this on timescales of 10^6 years, where the increased computing efficiency received far outweighs the energy required in transportation. The idea of interstellar migrations already exists in literature, (e.g. Badescu and Cathcart 2000).Assumptions needed for a Postbiological Civilisation
In the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) the main focus is on biological life. But the timescale of intelligent biological life could be very short; already some experts believe that we could see a postbiological earth in the next few generations. According to Steven J. DickSteven J. Dick
Steven J. Dick is an American astronomer, author and historian of science most noted for his work in the field of astrobiology. Dick served as the Chief Historian for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration from 2003 to 2009. He is a member of the International Academy of Astronautics and...
for a PBC to arise other than our own and be present, we must make five assumptions;
1) That evolution by natural selection results in intelligence beyond the earth;
2) That extraterrestrial intelligence is older than human intelligence;
3) That intelligence results in culture;
4) That culture evolves; and
5) That increasing intelligence is a central goal of cultural evolution.
Timescale over which a PBC can form
We know that assumptions 1, 3, 4, and 5 can take place as we have observed or are observing them on the Earth. For assumption 2 we must consider the L term of the Drake equationDrake equation
The Drake equation is an equation used to estimate the number of detectable extraterrestrial civilizations in the Milky Way galaxy. It is used in the fields of exobiology and the Search for ExtraTerrestrial Intelligence...
, and the timescale over which intelligent biological life can form. Around 1 Billion years after the start of the universe
Universe
The Universe is commonly defined as the totality of everything that exists, including all matter and energy, the planets, stars, galaxies, and the contents of intergalactic space. Definitions and usage vary and similar terms include the cosmos, the world and nature...
the first sun-like star had formed, and there were enough heavy elements around for planet formation (1998, Larson and Bromm 2001). From the earth we know that intelligent life can form within 5 billion years, this puts a lower time scale on which intelligent life can form, 6 billion years. And from the current rate of technological progression the leap from intelligent life to a PBC is negligible compared to the astronomical timescale. This means we could already be looking at a postbiological universe. In our own galaxy the first sun-like stars formed at around 4 billion years therefore we could already have a PBC in our galaxy that formed 3-4 billion years ago.
Implications for the search for Life
If we consider this possibility of a PBC in our galaxy we are still faced with Fermi's paradox. However many of the proposed solutions for Fermi’s paradox also hold true for a PBC. In terms of the search for extraterrestrial life and astrobiologyAstrobiology
Astrobiology is the study of the origin, evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe. This interdisciplinary field encompasses the search for habitable environments in our Solar System and habitable planets outside our Solar System, the search for evidence of prebiotic chemistry,...
because of the almost infinite possible forms a PBC could take and our lack of understanding of these we would effectively be blind in this search. For this reason even though there is a logical argument for the existence of PBCs our best hopes remain with looking for biological life.
Ethics
While in some circles the expression "postbiological evolution" is roughly synonymous with human genetic engineeringHuman genetic engineering
Human genetic engineering is the alteration of an individual's genotype with the aim of choosing the phenotype of a newborn or changing the existing phenotype of a child or adult....
, it is used most often to refer to the general application of the convergence
Technological convergence
Technological convergence is the tendency for different technological systems to evolve towards performing similar tasks. Convergence can refer to previously separate technologies such as voice , data , and video that now share resources and interact with each other synergistically.The rise of...
of nanotechnology
Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is the study of manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular scale. Generally, nanotechnology deals with developing materials, devices, or other structures possessing at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometres...
, biotechnology
Biotechnology
Biotechnology is a field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms and bioprocesses in engineering, technology, medicine and other fields requiring bioproducts. Biotechnology also utilizes these products for manufacturing purpose...
, information technology
Information technology
Information technology is the acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical information by a microelectronics-based combination of computing and telecommunications...
and cognitive science
Cognitive science
Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary scientific study of mind and its processes. It examines what cognition is, what it does and how it works. It includes research on how information is processed , represented, and transformed in behaviour, nervous system or machine...
(NBIC) to improve human performance
Performance improvement
Performance improvement is the concept of measuring the output of a particular process or procedure, then modifying the process or procedure to increase the output, increase efficiency, or increase the effectiveness of the process or procedure...
.
Since the 1990s, several academics (such as some of the fellows of the Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies
Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies
The Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies was founded in 2004 by philosopher Nick Bostrom and bioethicist James Hughes. Incorporated in the United States as a non-profit 501 organization, the IEET is a self-described "technoprogressive think tank" that seeks to contribute to understanding...
) have risen to become cogent advocates of the case for human enhancement while other academics (such as the members of President Bush's Council on Bioethics
The President's Council on Bioethics
The President's Council on Bioethics was a group of individuals appointed by United States President George W. Bush to advise his administration on bioethics. Established on November 28, 2001, by Executive Order 13237, the Council was directed to "advise the President on bioethical issues that may...
) have become its most outspoken critics.
Advocacy of the case for human enhancement is increasingly becoming synonymous with “transhumanism
Transhumanism
Transhumanism, often abbreviated as H+ or h+, is an international intellectual and cultural movement that affirms the possibility and desirability of fundamentally transforming the human condition by developing and making widely available technologies to eliminate aging and to greatly enhance human...
”, a controversial ideology and movement which has emerged to support the recognition and protection of the right of citizens to either maintain or modify
Body modification
Body modification is the deliberate altering of the human body for any non-medical reason, such as aesthetics, sexual enhancement, a rite of passage, religious reasons, to display group membership or affiliation, to create body art, shock value, or self expression...
their own mind
Cognitive liberty
Cognitive liberty is the freedom of sovereign control over one's own consciousness. It is an extension of the concepts of freedom of thought and self-ownership....
s and bodies
Morphological freedom
Morphological freedom refers to a proposed civil right of a person to either maintain or modify his or her own body, on his or her own terms, through informed, consensual recourse to, or refusal of, available therapeutic or enabling medical technology....
; so as to guarantee them the freedom of choice
Choice
Choice consists of the mental process of judging the merits of multiple options and selecting one of them. While a choice can be made between imagined options , often a choice is made between real options, and followed by the corresponding action...
and informed consent
Informed consent
Informed consent is a phrase often used in law to indicate that the consent a person gives meets certain minimum standards. As a literal matter, in the absence of fraud, it is redundant. An informed consent can be said to have been given based upon a clear appreciation and understanding of the...
of using human enhancement technologies on themselves and their children.
Neuromarketing
Neuromarketing
Neuromarketing is a new field of marketing that studies consumers' sensorimotor, cognitive, and affective response to marketing stimuli. Researchers use technologies such as functional magnetic resonance imaging to measure changes in activity in parts of the brain, electroencephalography and...
consultant Zack Lynch argues that neurotechnologies will have a more immediate effect on society than gene therapy
Gene therapy
Gene therapy is the insertion, alteration, or removal of genes within an individual's cells and biological tissues to treat disease. It is a technique for correcting defective genes that are responsible for disease development...
and will face less resistance as a pathway of radical human enhancement. He also argues that the concept of "enablement" needs to be added to the debate over "therapy" versus "enhancement".
Although many proposals of human enhancement rely on fringe science
Fringe science
Fringe science is scientific inquiry in an established field of study that departs significantly from mainstream or orthodox theories, and is classified in the "fringes" of a credible mainstream academic discipline....
, the very notion and prospect of human enhancement has sparked public controversy
Controversy
Controversy is a state of prolonged public dispute or debate, usually concerning a matter of opinion. The word was coined from the Latin controversia, as a composite of controversus – "turned in an opposite direction," from contra – "against" – and vertere – to turn, or versus , hence, "to turn...
.
Many critics argue that "human enhancement" is a loaded
Loaded language
In rhetoric, loaded language is wording that attempts to influence the certain audience by using to emotion....
term which has eugenic overtones because it may imply the improvement of human hereditary traits to attain a universally accepted norm
Norm (sociology)
Social norms are the accepted behaviors within a society or group. This sociological and social psychological term has been defined as "the rules that a group uses for appropriate and inappropriate values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors. These rules may be explicit or implicit...
of biological fitness
Fitness (biology)
Fitness is a central idea in evolutionary theory. It can be defined either with respect to a genotype or to a phenotype in a given environment...
(at the possible expense of human biodiversity
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is a measure of the health of ecosystems. Biodiversity is in part a function of climate. In terrestrial habitats, tropical regions are typically rich whereas polar regions...
and neurodiversity
Neurodiversity
Neurodiversity is a "controversial concept [that] ... regards atypical neurologicaldevelopment as a normal human difference". According to Jaarsma and Welin , the "neurodiversity movement was developed in the 1990s by online groups of autistic persons...
), and therefore can evoke negative reactions far beyond the specific meaning of the term. Furthermore, they conclude that enhancements which are self-evidently good, like "fewer diseases", are more the exception than the norm and even these may involve ethical tradeoffs, as the controversy about ADHD
Controversy about ADHD
The causes, diagnosis, and the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder have been the subject of active debate at least since the 1970s. For various reasons, ADHD remains one of the most controversial psychiatric disorders despite being a well validated clinical diagnosis...
arguably demonstrates.
However, the most common criticism of human enhancement is that it is or will often be practiced with a reckless
Recklessness (psychology)
Recklessness is disregard for or indifference to the dangers of a situation or for the consequences of one's actions....
and selfish
Selfishness
Selfishness denotes an excessive or exclusive concern with oneself, and as such it exceeds mere self interest or self concern. Insofar as a decision maker knowingly burdens or harms others for personal gain, the decision is selfish. In contrast, self-interest is more general...
short-term perspective that is ignorant of the long-term consequences on individuals and the rest of society, such as the fear that some enhancements will create unfair physical or mental advantages to those who can and will use them, or unequal access to such enhancements can and will further the gulf between the "haves" and "have-nots".
Accordingly, some advocates, who want to use more neutral language, and advance the public interest
Public interest
The public interest refers to the "common well-being" or "general welfare." The public interest is central to policy debates, politics, democracy and the nature of government itself...
in so-called "human enhancement technologies", prefer the term "enablement" over "enhancement"; defend and promote rigorous, independent safety testing of enabling technologies; as well as affordable, universal access to these technologies.