Pied-piping with inversion
Encyclopedia
Pied-piping with inversion is a special word order phenomenon found in some languages, for example, languages in the Mesoamerican linguistic area
.
in Smith Stark (1988). Some sources also refer to pied-piping with inversion as "secondary wh-movement".
The phenomenon can be described as follows:
The following examples from San Dionisio Ocotepec Zapotec illustrate the phenomenon. As the following example shows, a possessor normally follows the noun that is possessed in this language (Broadwell 2001):
If the possessor is questioned, then the whole noun phrase must pied-pipe to the beginning of the sentence. However, the order of the initial phrase must have the possessor before the possessed:
The difference in order between the noun phrases in (1) and (2) illustrates pied-piping with inversion. (1) shows the ordinary order in which the noun is the first element of the noun phrase; (2) shows the inverted order found in the pied-piped noun phrase.
The following examples from Tzotzil
(Aissen 1996) show the same process:
As this example shows, languages may differ in the degree to which pied-piping with inversion is obligatory in different types of phrases. So (2) above shows that the interrogative must be initial in a pied-piped noun phrase. But (5) shows that the interrogative is only optionally initial in a pied-piped quantifier phrase.
The following example, from Quiegolani Zapotec (Black 2000) shows pied-piping with inversion in a prepositional phrase:
Fronted negative and indefinite phrases may also show pied-piping with inversion in some languages, as in this example from San Dionisio Ocotepec Zapotec:
7.) a.) Rú-tè’cà [túú x-pè’cw] ù-dííny Màríí.
animate:negative anyone p-dog com-hit Maria
‘Maria didn’t hit anyone’s dog.’
b.) *Rú-tè’cà [x-pè’cw túú] ù-dííny Màríí.
animate:negative p-dog anyone com-hit Maria
The noun phrase 'anyone's dog' has been fronted to a position before the verb, and shows the same pied-piping with inversion seen in other syntactic environments.
, Chuj, Tzotzil
), and several Mixtecan languages
(Ocotepec Mixtec, and Copala Triqui).
Pied-piping with inversion is unusual outside Mesoamerica. It is documented in Sasak
, an Austronesian language of Indonesia (Austin 2001).
A somewhat similar phenomenon is found in a number of Germanic languages, where certain pronominal objects of prepositions appear before the preposition. The following Dutch examples show that ordinary objects follow the preposition op 'on', while the pronouns er 'it', daar 'there', and hier 'here' precede the preposition:
These examples show inversion of a prepositional phrase, but this inversion does not necessarily occur in contexts of pied-piping.
Possibly related is the phenomenon known as swiping, which a wh-phrase is inverted with a governing preposition in the context of sluicing
:
Such inversion does require pied-piping, though it also requires ellipsis
, unlike what is found in the Meso-American languages.
Mesoamerican Linguistic Area
The Mesoamerican Linguistic Area is a sprachbund containing many of the languages natively spoken in the cultural area of Mesoamerica. This sprachbund is defined by an array of syntactic, lexical and phonological traits as well as a number of ethnolinguistic traits found in the languages of...
.
Introduction
"Pied-piping with inversion" is a special word order phenomenon found in some languages. It was first named and identified as an areal characteristic of the Mesoamerican linguistic areaMesoamerican Linguistic Area
The Mesoamerican Linguistic Area is a sprachbund containing many of the languages natively spoken in the cultural area of Mesoamerica. This sprachbund is defined by an array of syntactic, lexical and phonological traits as well as a number of ethnolinguistic traits found in the languages of...
in Smith Stark (1988). Some sources also refer to pied-piping with inversion as "secondary wh-movement".
The phenomenon can be described as follows:
- the language has Wh-movementWh-movementWh-movement is a syntactic phenomenon found in many languages around the world, in which interrogative words or phrases show a special word order. Unlike ordinary phrases, such wh-words appear at the beginning of an interrogative clause...
. - the language has pied-piping. That is, when certain words undergo wh-movement, not only the interrogative word, but the phrase which contains this word moves.
- the word order within the pied-piped phrase is different from the order of ordinary phrases.
The following examples from San Dionisio Ocotepec Zapotec illustrate the phenomenon. As the following example shows, a possessor normally follows the noun that is possessed in this language (Broadwell 2001):
- 1) Cù’á Juààny [NP x-pè’cw Màríí].
- com:grab Juan p-dog Mary
- ‘Juan grabbed Mary’s dog.’
-
- *Cù’á Juààny [NP Màríí x-pè’cw].
- com:grab Juan Mary p-dog
If the possessor is questioned, then the whole noun phrase must pied-pipe to the beginning of the sentence. However, the order of the initial phrase must have the possessor before the possessed:
- 2) ¿[NPTúú x-pèh’cw] cù’á Juààny?
- who p-dog com:grab Juan
- ‘Whose dog did Juan grab?’
-
- * ¿[NPX-pèh’cw túú] cù’á Juààny?
- p-dog who com:grab Juan
The difference in order between the noun phrases in (1) and (2) illustrates pied-piping with inversion. (1) shows the ordinary order in which the noun is the first element of the noun phrase; (2) shows the inverted order found in the pied-piped noun phrase.
The following examples from Tzotzil
Tzotzil language
Tzotzil is a Maya language spoken by the indigenous Tzotzil Maya people in the Mexican state of Chiapas. According to an INEGI 2005 census, there are 329,937 speakers of Tzotzil in Mexico, making it the 6th most spoken indigenous language in the country...
(Aissen 1996) show the same process:
- 3) I-cham [NPx-ch’amal li Xun]-e
- com-die A3-child the Xun-enc
- ‘Xun’s child died.’
- 4) [NPBuch’u x-ch’amal] i-cham?
- who A3-child com-die
-
- ‘Whose child died?’
Types of phrases that show pied-piping with inversion
Pied-piping with inversion is most often found in noun phrases (NP), prepositional phrases (PP), and quantifier phrases (QP). The following example, also from San Dionisio Ocotepec Zapotec, shows pied-piping with inversion in a quantifier phrase (Broadwell 2001):- 5a) ¿[Xhíí tyóp] ù-dàw Juààny?
- what two com-eat Juan
- ‘What did Juan eat two of?
- 5b) ¿[Tyóp xhíí] ù-dàw Juààny?
- two what com-eat Juan
- ‘What did Juan eat two of?’
As this example shows, languages may differ in the degree to which pied-piping with inversion is obligatory in different types of phrases. So (2) above shows that the interrogative must be initial in a pied-piped noun phrase. But (5) shows that the interrogative is only optionally initial in a pied-piped quantifier phrase.
The following example, from Quiegolani Zapotec (Black 2000) shows pied-piping with inversion in a prepositional phrase:
- 6a) [Txu lo] n-dux xnaa noo?
- who to stat-angry mother 1ex
- ‘With whom was my mother angry?’
- 6b) *[Lo txu] n-dux xnaa noo?
- to who stat-angry mother 1ex
Environments for pied-piping with inversion
The most frequently cited type of sentence with pied-piping with inversion is a wh-question. However, a number of Mesoamerican languages also show fronting of negative or indefinite phrases to a position before the verb.Fronted negative and indefinite phrases may also show pied-piping with inversion in some languages, as in this example from San Dionisio Ocotepec Zapotec:
7.) a.) Rú-tè’cà [túú x-pè’cw] ù-dííny Màríí.
animate:negative anyone p-dog com-hit Maria
‘Maria didn’t hit anyone’s dog.’
b.) *Rú-tè’cà [x-pè’cw túú] ù-dííny Màríí.
animate:negative p-dog anyone com-hit Maria
The noun phrase 'anyone's dog' has been fronted to a position before the verb, and shows the same pied-piping with inversion seen in other syntactic environments.
Languages which show pied-piping with inversion
Pied-piping with inversion seems to be found in all Mesoamerican languages. It is documented in many of these languages, including several Zapotec languages (San Dionisio Ocotepec Zapotec, Tlacolula de Matamoros Zapotec, and Quiegolani Zapotec), several Mayan languages (K'ichee', KaqchikelKaqchikel language
The Kaqchikel, or Kaqchiquel, language is an indigenous Mesoamerican language and a member of the Quichean–Mamean branch of the Mayan languages family. It is spoken by the indigenous Kaqchikel people in central Guatemala...
, Chuj, Tzotzil
Tzotzil language
Tzotzil is a Maya language spoken by the indigenous Tzotzil Maya people in the Mexican state of Chiapas. According to an INEGI 2005 census, there are 329,937 speakers of Tzotzil in Mexico, making it the 6th most spoken indigenous language in the country...
), and several Mixtecan languages
Mixtecan languages
The Mixtec language, actually multiple languages, belong to Otomanguean language family of Mexico, and are closely related to the Trique and Cuicatec languages. They are spoken by over half a million people. Identifying how many Mixtec languages there are in this complex dialect continuum poses...
(Ocotepec Mixtec, and Copala Triqui).
Pied-piping with inversion is unusual outside Mesoamerica. It is documented in Sasak
Sasak language
The Sasak language is spoken by the Sasak ethnic group, which make up the majority of the population of Lombok, Indonesia. It is closely related to the languages of adjacent Bali and Sumbawa....
, an Austronesian language of Indonesia (Austin 2001).
A somewhat similar phenomenon is found in a number of Germanic languages, where certain pronominal objects of prepositions appear before the preposition. The following Dutch examples show that ordinary objects follow the preposition op 'on', while the pronouns er 'it', daar 'there', and hier 'here' precede the preposition:
- Ik reken [op je steun]. ("I count on your support.")
- Ik reken erop/daarop/hierop ("I count on it/on that/on this.")
These examples show inversion of a prepositional phrase, but this inversion does not necessarily occur in contexts of pied-piping.
Possibly related is the phenomenon known as swiping, which a wh-phrase is inverted with a governing preposition in the context of sluicing
Sluicing
In syntax, a sluicing construction is one in which the sentential part of an interrogative clause is elided; this typically occurs only in constituent questions...
:
- Ralph was arguing, but I don't know who with.
Such inversion does require pied-piping, though it also requires ellipsis
Ellipsis
Ellipsis is a series of marks that usually indicate an intentional omission of a word, sentence or whole section from the original text being quoted. An ellipsis can also be used to indicate an unfinished thought or, at the end of a sentence, a trailing off into silence...
, unlike what is found in the Meso-American languages.