Of Miracles
Encyclopedia
"Of Miracles" is the title of Section X of David Hume
's An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding
(1748).
's series, "One Hundred Books"), sections X and XI were omitted, appearing in an Appendix with the misleading explanation that they were normally left out of popular editions. Although the two sections appear in the full text in modern editions, chapter X has also been published separately, both as a separate book and in collections.
Hume first explains the principle of evidence: the only way that we can judge between two empirical claims is by weighing the evidence. The degree to which we believe one claim over another is proportional to the degree by which the evidence for one outweighs the evidence for the other. The weight of evidence is a function of such factors as the reliability, manner, and number of witnesses.
Now, a miracle
is defined as: "a transgression of a law of nature by a particular volition of the Deity, or by the interposition of some invisible agent." Laws of nature, however, are established by "a firm and unalterable experience"; they rest upon the exceptionless testimony of countless people in different places and times.
As the evidence for a miracle is always limited, as miracles are single events, occurring at particular times and places, the evidence for the miracle will always be outweighed by the evidence against — the evidence for the law of which the miracle is supposed to be a transgression.
There are, however, two ways in which this argument might be neutralised. First, if the number of witnesses of the miracle be greater than the number of witnesses of the operation of the law, and secondly, if a witness be 100% reliable (for then no amount of contrary testimony will be enough to outweigh that person's account). Hume therefore lays out, in the second part of section X, a number of reasons that we have for never holding this condition to have been met. He first claims out that no miracle has in fact had enough witnesses of sufficient honesty, intelligence, and education. He goes on to list the ways in which human beings lack complete reliability:
Hume ends with an argument that is relevant to what has gone before, but which introduces a new theme: the argument from miracles
. He points out that many different religions have their own miracle stories. Given that there is no reason to accept some of them but not others (aside from a prejudice in favour of one religion), then we must hold all religions to have been proved true — but given the fact that religions contradict each other, this cannot be the case.
. However, the strength of the objection in the former is diminished by the need to rely on subjective experience and interpretation, which is very unreliable and open to bias and illusion, and is unacceptable by itself in scientific investigation. And the strength of objection in the latter is also diminished if it is merely relying on a lack of a natural explanation; such an argument commits the informal logical fallacy of an argument from ignorance
, as no actual explanation of the alleged miracle is provided.
Some writers, such as R.F. Holland, have argued that Hume's definition of "miracle" need not be accepted, and that an event needn't violate a natural law in order to be accounted miraculous.
It has been claimed by critics such as the Presbyterian
minister, George Campbell
, that Hume's argument is circular. That is, he rests his case against belief in miracles upon the claim that laws of nature are supported by exceptionless testimony, but testimony can only be accounted exceptionless if we discount the occurrence of miracles.
David Hume
David Hume was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, known especially for his philosophical empiricism and skepticism. He was one of the most important figures in the history of Western philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment...
's An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding
An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding is a book by the Scottish empiricist philosopher David Hume, published in 1748. It was a revision of an earlier effort, Hume's A Treatise of Human Nature, published anonymously in London in 1739–40...
(1748).
The text
In the 19th-century edition of Hume's Enquiry (in Sir John LubbockJohn Lubbock
John Lubbock is the name of:*Sir John Lubbock, 1st Baronet *Sir John Lubbock, 2nd Baronet , English banker*Sir John Lubbock, 3rd Baronet , English banker, barrister, mathematician and astronomer...
's series, "One Hundred Books"), sections X and XI were omitted, appearing in an Appendix with the misleading explanation that they were normally left out of popular editions. Although the two sections appear in the full text in modern editions, chapter X has also been published separately, both as a separate book and in collections.
The argument
Hume starts by telling the reader that he believes that he has "discovered an argument [...] which, if just, will, with the wise and learned, be an everlasting check to all kinds of superstitious delusion".Hume first explains the principle of evidence: the only way that we can judge between two empirical claims is by weighing the evidence. The degree to which we believe one claim over another is proportional to the degree by which the evidence for one outweighs the evidence for the other. The weight of evidence is a function of such factors as the reliability, manner, and number of witnesses.
Now, a miracle
Miracle
A miracle often denotes an event attributed to divine intervention. Alternatively, it may be an event attributed to a miracle worker, saint, or religious leader. A miracle is sometimes thought of as a perceptible interruption of the laws of nature. Others suggest that a god may work with the laws...
is defined as: "a transgression of a law of nature by a particular volition of the Deity, or by the interposition of some invisible agent." Laws of nature, however, are established by "a firm and unalterable experience"; they rest upon the exceptionless testimony of countless people in different places and times.
"Nothing is esteemed a miracle, if it ever happen in the common course of nature. It is no miracle that a man, seemingly in good health, should die on a sudden: because such a kind of death, though more unusual than any other, has yet been frequently observed to happen. But it is a miracle, that a dead man should come to life; because that has never been observed in any age or country."
As the evidence for a miracle is always limited, as miracles are single events, occurring at particular times and places, the evidence for the miracle will always be outweighed by the evidence against — the evidence for the law of which the miracle is supposed to be a transgression.
There are, however, two ways in which this argument might be neutralised. First, if the number of witnesses of the miracle be greater than the number of witnesses of the operation of the law, and secondly, if a witness be 100% reliable (for then no amount of contrary testimony will be enough to outweigh that person's account). Hume therefore lays out, in the second part of section X, a number of reasons that we have for never holding this condition to have been met. He first claims out that no miracle has in fact had enough witnesses of sufficient honesty, intelligence, and education. He goes on to list the ways in which human beings lack complete reliability:
- People are very prone to accept the unusual and incredible, which excite agreeable passions of surprise and wonder.
- Those with strong religious beliefs are often prepared to give evidence that they know is false, "with the best intentions in the world, for the sake of promoting so holy a cause".
- People are often too credulous when faced with such witnesses, whose apparent honesty and eloquence (together with the psychological effects of the marvellous described earlier) may overcome normal scepticism.
- Miracle stories tend to have their origins in "ignorant and barbarous nations" — either elsewhere in the world or in a civilised nation's past. The history of every culture displays a pattern of development from a wealth of supernatural events – "[p]rodigies, omens, oracles, judgements" – which steadily decreases over time, as the culture grows in knowledge and understanding of the world.
Hume ends with an argument that is relevant to what has gone before, but which introduces a new theme: the argument from miracles
Argument from miracles
The argument from miracles is an argument for the existence of God relying on eyewitness testimony of the occurrence of miracles to establish the active intervention of a supernatural being...
. He points out that many different religions have their own miracle stories. Given that there is no reason to accept some of them but not others (aside from a prejudice in favour of one religion), then we must hold all religions to have been proved true — but given the fact that religions contradict each other, this cannot be the case.
Criticism
It's arguable that Hume ignores two cases: the first being first-person experience of claimed miracles, the second being claimed miracles for which the evidence isn't the testimony of witnesses alone, but a continuing object or phenomenon, such as the Shroud of TurinShroud of Turin
The Shroud of Turin or Turin Shroud is a linen cloth bearing the image of a man who appears to have suffered physical trauma in a manner consistent with crucifixion. It is kept in the royal chapel of the Cathedral of Saint John the Baptist in Turin, northern Italy. The image on the shroud is...
. However, the strength of the objection in the former is diminished by the need to rely on subjective experience and interpretation, which is very unreliable and open to bias and illusion, and is unacceptable by itself in scientific investigation. And the strength of objection in the latter is also diminished if it is merely relying on a lack of a natural explanation; such an argument commits the informal logical fallacy of an argument from ignorance
Argument from ignorance
Argument from ignorance, also known as argumentum ad ignorantiam or "appeal to ignorance" , is a fallacy in informal logic. It asserts that a proposition is true because it has not yet been proven false, it is "generally accepted"...
, as no actual explanation of the alleged miracle is provided.
Some writers, such as R.F. Holland, have argued that Hume's definition of "miracle" need not be accepted, and that an event needn't violate a natural law in order to be accounted miraculous.
It has been claimed by critics such as the Presbyterian
Presbyterianism
Presbyterianism refers to a number of Christian churches adhering to the Calvinist theological tradition within Protestantism, which are organized according to a characteristic Presbyterian polity. Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Scriptures,...
minister, George Campbell
George Campbell (Presbyterian minister)
George Campbell was a Scottish Enlightenment philosopher, minister, theologian, and professor of divinity. Campbell had three focuses to his intellectual life: language, theology, and rhetoric. He was primarily interested in rhetoric since he believed that the study of rhetoric would enable his...
, that Hume's argument is circular. That is, he rests his case against belief in miracles upon the claim that laws of nature are supported by exceptionless testimony, but testimony can only be accounted exceptionless if we discount the occurrence of miracles.
External links
- "Of Miracles" — full text as part of the Leeds Electronic Texts Centre's on-line edition of the Enquiry concerning Human Understanding
- "Miracles" — dialogue by Peter J. King