Norman O. Frederiksen
Encyclopedia
Norman “Fritz” Frederiksen was an American research psychologist and leading proponent of performance assessment, an approach to educational and occupational testing that focused on the use of tasks similar to the ones individuals actually encounter in real classroom and work environments. In keeping with the philosophy underlying this approach, Frederiksen was a critic of multiple-choice testing, which he felt negatively influenced school curricula and classroom practice. Much of his research centered upon creating and evaluating alternative approaches to the measurement of knowledge and skill, which he pursued over a 40-year career at Educational Testing Service (ETS) in Princeton, NJ. For his work, he received the American Psychological Association's
Award for Distinguished Contributions to Knowledge in 1984 and, by the time of his retirement from ETS, had attained the position of Distinguished Scientist, the organization's highest-ranking scientific title at that time.
from 1927 to 1931, graduating with an AB degree in psychology. He moved to the University of Nebraska in 1931 to accept an assistantship and pursue a master's degree. At Nebraska, he studied under, and published with, J. P. Guilford
, who was later to be widely recognized for his multi-faceted theory of human abilities. Upon completion of his master's, Frederiksen moved to Syracuse University to study under Floyd Allport
, with whom he also published and who is today considered the founder of social psychology
. Upon graduation, Frederiksen left Syracuse in the fall of 1937 to join the faculty of Princeton University
.
, under whom he worked during war-time leave on a project concerning the selection and training of naval personnel (1942–1947). Frederiksen began his association with ETS, where Gulliksen also was affiliated, soon after the naval project ended, authoring the second research report released by the fledgling testing organization. He remained on the faculty of Princeton University, however, until 1955, rising to the rank of Associate Professor.
At ETS, Frederiksen’s research centered on assessment innovation, in particular on devising ways to measure complex problem solving in education and in occupational settings, often through the use of "constructed-response" (i.e., free response
) and performance tasks. The approach he took to test design and validation
was grounded in theory, particularly in trying to understand the cognitive processes
brought to bear in real-world problem-solving and how to measure those processes in test situations.
Frederiksen's work on performance assessment included co-authoring an early chapter on its use in education in the first edition of Educational Measurement, edited by E. F. Linquist, and published in 1951. He invented the “in-basket test,” which he described in a book of that title, published by the American Psychological Association in 1957. The test presented the examinee with a collection of memos, mail, telephone messages, and the like, which needed to be prioritized and acted upon. Today, the in-basket test is used throughout the world to assess applicants for managerial jobs in a wide variety of industries.
Frederiksen also applied his innovative techniques to the measurement of creativity
, for which he developed the Formulating Hypotheses test. Each item in the test presented a description of a situation and asked the examinee to generate as many causes for that situation as he or she could. In a series of research studies using the test, Frederiksen and his colleagues demonstrated that this open-ended technique was able to measure divergent thinking skills that were considerably different from the convergent ones tapped by multiple-choice versions of the test.
Frederiksen’s work in the measurement of problem solving and creativity led to his publication in 1984 of a now-classic article, “The Real Test Bias: Influences of Testing on Teaching and Learning.” The article’s thesis was that multiple-choice formats measured only a subset of the skills important for success in educational environments and that the heavy dependence in educational testing on that format had a narrowing effect on classroom instruction. That theoretical position motivated much of his research and it is one that continues to motivate research and development throughout the field of educational testing today.
Frederiksen was president of the American Psychological Association’s
(APA) Division of Evaluation, Measurement, and Statistics from 1970-71. He died in Princeton, NJ in 1998.
In 2010, the ETS Board of Trustees created the Norman O. Frederiksen Chair in Assessment Innovation. The resolution establishing the Chair called for it to be filled by "a highly accomplished researcher and scholar whose work builds on and expands the academic and intellectual traditions exemplified by the achievements of Dr. Norman O. Frederiksen."
American Psychological Association
The American Psychological Association is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the United States. It is the world's largest association of psychologists with around 154,000 members including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. The APA...
Award for Distinguished Contributions to Knowledge in 1984 and, by the time of his retirement from ETS, had attained the position of Distinguished Scientist, the organization's highest-ranking scientific title at that time.
Early years
Norman Frederiksen was born on February 9, 1909 on a farm near Siebert, Colorado and grew up in Fairbury, Nebraska, to which his family had moved. He attended Nebraska Wesleyan UniversityNebraska Wesleyan University
Nebraska Wesleyan University is a private, coeducational university located in Lincoln, Nebraska. It was founded in 1887 by Nebraska Methodists. As of 2007, it has 1,600 full-time students and 300 faculty and staff. The school teaches in the tradition of a liberal arts college education....
from 1927 to 1931, graduating with an AB degree in psychology. He moved to the University of Nebraska in 1931 to accept an assistantship and pursue a master's degree. At Nebraska, he studied under, and published with, J. P. Guilford
J. P. Guilford
Joy Paul Guilford was a US psychologist, best remembered for his psychometric study of human intelligence, including the important distinction between convergent and divergent production....
, who was later to be widely recognized for his multi-faceted theory of human abilities. Upon completion of his master's, Frederiksen moved to Syracuse University to study under Floyd Allport
Floyd Henry Allport
Floyd Henry Allport was professor of social psychology and political psychology at Syracuse University's Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs from 1924 until 1956, and visiting professor at University of California, Berkeley...
, with whom he also published and who is today considered the founder of social psychology
Social psychology
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. By this definition, scientific refers to the empirical method of investigation. The terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors include all...
. Upon graduation, Frederiksen left Syracuse in the fall of 1937 to join the faculty of Princeton University
Princeton University
Princeton University is a private research university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The school is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League, and is one of the nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution....
.
Career
At Princeton University, Frederiksen met Harold Gulliksen, a professor and pioneering psychometricianPsychometrics
Psychometrics is the field of study concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, personality traits, and educational measurement...
, under whom he worked during war-time leave on a project concerning the selection and training of naval personnel (1942–1947). Frederiksen began his association with ETS, where Gulliksen also was affiliated, soon after the naval project ended, authoring the second research report released by the fledgling testing organization. He remained on the faculty of Princeton University, however, until 1955, rising to the rank of Associate Professor.
At ETS, Frederiksen’s research centered on assessment innovation, in particular on devising ways to measure complex problem solving in education and in occupational settings, often through the use of "constructed-response" (i.e., free response
Free response
Free response is a type of question used in tests in education, workplace, and government. Most free response questions ask or require the test-taker to state a belief, opinion, or write a short essay and support it with facts, examples, or other evidence...
) and performance tasks. The approach he took to test design and validation
Test validity
Test validity concerns the test and assessment procedures used in psychological and educational testing, and the extent to which these measure what they purport to measure...
was grounded in theory, particularly in trying to understand the cognitive processes
Cognition
In science, cognition refers to mental processes. These processes include attention, remembering, producing and understanding language, solving problems, and making decisions. Cognition is studied in various disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science...
brought to bear in real-world problem-solving and how to measure those processes in test situations.
Frederiksen's work on performance assessment included co-authoring an early chapter on its use in education in the first edition of Educational Measurement, edited by E. F. Linquist, and published in 1951. He invented the “in-basket test,” which he described in a book of that title, published by the American Psychological Association in 1957. The test presented the examinee with a collection of memos, mail, telephone messages, and the like, which needed to be prioritized and acted upon. Today, the in-basket test is used throughout the world to assess applicants for managerial jobs in a wide variety of industries.
Frederiksen also applied his innovative techniques to the measurement of creativity
Creativity
Creativity refers to the phenomenon whereby a person creates something new that has some kind of value. What counts as "new" may be in reference to the individual creator, or to the society or domain within which the novelty occurs...
, for which he developed the Formulating Hypotheses test. Each item in the test presented a description of a situation and asked the examinee to generate as many causes for that situation as he or she could. In a series of research studies using the test, Frederiksen and his colleagues demonstrated that this open-ended technique was able to measure divergent thinking skills that were considerably different from the convergent ones tapped by multiple-choice versions of the test.
Frederiksen’s work in the measurement of problem solving and creativity led to his publication in 1984 of a now-classic article, “The Real Test Bias: Influences of Testing on Teaching and Learning.” The article’s thesis was that multiple-choice formats measured only a subset of the skills important for success in educational environments and that the heavy dependence in educational testing on that format had a narrowing effect on classroom instruction. That theoretical position motivated much of his research and it is one that continues to motivate research and development throughout the field of educational testing today.
Frederiksen was president of the American Psychological Association’s
American Psychological Association
The American Psychological Association is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the United States. It is the world's largest association of psychologists with around 154,000 members including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. The APA...
(APA) Division of Evaluation, Measurement, and Statistics from 1970-71. He died in Princeton, NJ in 1998.
In 2010, the ETS Board of Trustees created the Norman O. Frederiksen Chair in Assessment Innovation. The resolution establishing the Chair called for it to be filled by "a highly accomplished researcher and scholar whose work builds on and expands the academic and intellectual traditions exemplified by the achievements of Dr. Norman O. Frederiksen."