Maximus of Ephesus
Encyclopedia
Maximus of Ephesus was a Neoplatonist philosopher. He is said to have come from a rich family, and exercised great influence over the emperor Julian
, who was commended to him by Aedesius
. He pandered to the emperor's love of magic and theurgy
, and by judicious administration of the omens won a high position at court. His overbearing manner made him numerous enemies, and, after being imprisoned after the death of Julian, he was put to death by Valens
.
in his Lives of the Sophists, but he is also referred to by Ammianus Marcellinus
, the emperor Julian
, and Libanius
. Christian writers also discuss him, albeit in very negative terms.
Maximus was born around the beginning of the 4th century. Ammianus Marcellinus
calls Ephesus the hometown of Maximus. This is doubted by some scholars, but it is certain that he originated from the west of Asia Minor
. His parents were wealthy. Maximus had a brother named Claudianus, who also became a philosopher. Another brother, Nymphidianus
, was appointed by emperor Julian
more magister epistularum the Graecarum (secretary for Greek correspondence). Ammonius Hermiae
reported that Maximus was a pupil of the Neoplatonist "Hierius."
From around 335-350 Maximus was in Pergamon
as a pupil of Aedesius
. While he was there, Maximus studied alongside Chrysanthius
, Eusebius of Myndus
, and Priscus
. Many Neoplatonists practiced theurgy
, (attempting to commune with God by special ritual actions), and we hear of Maximus successfully breaking a love-spell which had been cast on the philosopher Sosipatra
by one of her relatives.
Around 350 Maximus left Pergamon in order to work in Ephesus as a philosophy teacher. Apparently Christians also participated in his instruction: a Christian named Sisinnius, who later became a Novatianist bishop in Constantinople
, is said to have studied with Maximus. In the year 351 the later emperor Julian
went to Pergamon, in order to study with Aedesius. Whilst there, Eusebius
warned Julian against getting involved with the magic arts practised by Maximus, but his warning had the opposite effect, and Julian went to Ephesus between May 351 and April 352, in order to continue his training with Maximus there.
In November 355 Julian was appointed Caesar, and Julian remained in contact with Maximus. In 361, as emperor, Julian invited Priscus and Maximus to Constantinople. The two philosophers accepted the invitation. Maximus did not let himself be deterred by unfavorable omens, but is said to have explained that it was possible to force the favour of the Gods. Both Neoplatonists from now on remained near the emperor, who used them as religious-philosophical advisors and discussion partners. Eunapius states that Maximus and Priscus had no political authority, but also writes that Maximus became arrogantly inaccessible and used his influential position to personally enrich himself. Maximus travelled in the summer of 362 with Julian to Antioch
, and then in March 363 on the Persia campaign. Before the emperor died on 26 June 363 from a combat injury, he held a last philosophical conversation with Maximus and Priscus.
Maximus continued to receive imperial favour under Jovian, but after Jovian's death his enemies came after him. In spring 364 he was accused of causing a lengthy illness in the new emperors Valentinian I
and Valens
. This accusation could not be confirmed, and was dropped. But his numerous opponents did not relent; in 365/366 he was again arrested and accused of having illegitimately enriched himself. A high fine was imposed, and he was sent "to Asia" - probably into his homeland - to find the penalty. Because he was not able to pay, he was tortured. Eunapius reported that Maximus wanted to kill himself, as he could no longer bear the pain, and his wife procured some poison. His wife drank the poison first, but Maximus then did not drink.
Later the proconsul of Asia, Clearchus
, who was a supporter of the old religion, helped the prisoner. Clearchus provided for the release of the philosopher and restored a large part of his properties, which he had lost. Maximus began teaching philosophy again, and even dared to return to Constantinople.
Finally he was suspected of supporting a conspiracy against the emperor in the winter 371/372. He is said to have foreseen that the emperor Valens would "die a strange death, and would not be given burial or the honour of a tomb." Maximus was brought to Antioch, where Valens was at that time. The trial, at first, ran favorably for him, but he was sent to his hometown Ephesus, where the new proconsul of Asia, Festus, at the beginning of 372, executed him.
says that Maximus wrote a number of works including On Insoluble Contradictions, On Forecasts, On Numbers, and a commentary on Aristotle
. Two lost commentaries are testified from other sources: one on the Categories
, from which a fragment survives, and one on the Prior Analytics
, to which Themistius
responded. Maximus is reported to have agreed with Eusebius
, Iamblichus and Porphyry
in asserting the perfection of the second and third figures of the syllogism
.
Julian the Apostate
Julian "the Apostate" , commonly known as Julian, or also Julian the Philosopher, was Roman Emperor from 361 to 363 and a noted philosopher and Greek writer....
, who was commended to him by Aedesius
Aedesius
Aedesius was a Neoplatonist philosopher and mystic born of a noble Cappadocian family.-Career:He migrated to Syria, attracted by the lectures of Iamblichus, of whom he became a follower. According to Eunapius, he differed from Iamblichus on certain points connected with theurgy and magic...
. He pandered to the emperor's love of magic and theurgy
Theurgy
Theurgy describes the practice of rituals, sometimes seen as magical in nature, performed with the intention of invoking the action or evoking the presence of one or more gods, especially with the goal of uniting with the divine, achieving henosis, and perfecting oneself.- Definitions :*Proclus...
, and by judicious administration of the omens won a high position at court. His overbearing manner made him numerous enemies, and, after being imprisoned after the death of Julian, he was put to death by Valens
Valens
Valens was the Eastern Roman Emperor from 364 to 378. He was given the eastern half of the empire by his brother Valentinian I after the latter's accession to the throne...
.
Life
The most detailed source for the life of Maximus is EunapiusEunapius
Eunapius was a Greek sophist and historian of the 4th century. His principal surviving work is the Lives of the Sophists, a collection of the biographies of twenty-three philosophers and sophists.-Life:He was born at Sardis, AD 347...
in his Lives of the Sophists, but he is also referred to by Ammianus Marcellinus
Ammianus Marcellinus
Ammianus Marcellinus was a fourth-century Roman historian. He wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from Antiquity...
, the emperor Julian
Julian the Apostate
Julian "the Apostate" , commonly known as Julian, or also Julian the Philosopher, was Roman Emperor from 361 to 363 and a noted philosopher and Greek writer....
, and Libanius
Libanius
Libanius was a Greek-speaking teacher of rhetoric of the Sophist school. During the rise of Christian hegemony in the later Roman Empire, he remained unconverted and regarded himself as a Hellene in religious matters.-Life:...
. Christian writers also discuss him, albeit in very negative terms.
Maximus was born around the beginning of the 4th century. Ammianus Marcellinus
Ammianus Marcellinus
Ammianus Marcellinus was a fourth-century Roman historian. He wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from Antiquity...
calls Ephesus the hometown of Maximus. This is doubted by some scholars, but it is certain that he originated from the west of Asia Minor
Asia Minor
Asia Minor is a geographical location at the westernmost protrusion of Asia, also called Anatolia, and corresponds to the western two thirds of the Asian part of Turkey...
. His parents were wealthy. Maximus had a brother named Claudianus, who also became a philosopher. Another brother, Nymphidianus
Nymphidianus of Smyrna
Nymphidianus of Smyrna, was a Neoplatonist and sophist who lived in the time of the emperor Julian . He was the brother of Maximus. Julian, who was greatly attached to Maximus, made Nymphidianus his interpreter and Greek secretary, though he was more fit to write declamations and disputations than...
, was appointed by emperor Julian
Julian the Apostate
Julian "the Apostate" , commonly known as Julian, or also Julian the Philosopher, was Roman Emperor from 361 to 363 and a noted philosopher and Greek writer....
more magister epistularum the Graecarum (secretary for Greek correspondence). Ammonius Hermiae
Ammonius Hermiae
Ammonius Hermiae was a Greek philosopher, and the son of the Neoplatonist philosophers Hermias and Aedesia. He was a pupil of Proclus in Athens, and taught at Alexandria for most of his life, writing commentaries on Plato, Aristotle, and other philosophers....
reported that Maximus was a pupil of the Neoplatonist "Hierius."
From around 335-350 Maximus was in Pergamon
Pergamon
Pergamon , or Pergamum, was an ancient Greek city in modern-day Turkey, in Mysia, today located from the Aegean Sea on a promontory on the north side of the river Caicus , that became the capital of the Kingdom of Pergamon during the Hellenistic period, under the Attalid dynasty, 281–133 BC...
as a pupil of Aedesius
Aedesius
Aedesius was a Neoplatonist philosopher and mystic born of a noble Cappadocian family.-Career:He migrated to Syria, attracted by the lectures of Iamblichus, of whom he became a follower. According to Eunapius, he differed from Iamblichus on certain points connected with theurgy and magic...
. While he was there, Maximus studied alongside Chrysanthius
Chrysanthius
Chrysanthius of Sardis was a Greek philosopher of the 4th century AD who studied at the school of Iamblichus. He was one of the favorite pupils of Aedesius, and devoted himself mainly to the mystical side of Neoplatonism. The emperor Julian went to him by the advice of Aedesius, and subsequently...
, Eusebius of Myndus
Eusebius of Myndus
Eusebius of Myndus was a 4th century philosopher, a distinguished Neoplatonist. He is described by Eunapius as one of the links in the "Golden Chain" of Neoplatonism....
, and Priscus
Priscus of Epirus
Priscus of Epirus was a Neoplatonist philosopher and theurgist, a colleague of Maximus of Ephesus, and a friend of the emperor Julian....
. Many Neoplatonists practiced theurgy
Theurgy
Theurgy describes the practice of rituals, sometimes seen as magical in nature, performed with the intention of invoking the action or evoking the presence of one or more gods, especially with the goal of uniting with the divine, achieving henosis, and perfecting oneself.- Definitions :*Proclus...
, (attempting to commune with God by special ritual actions), and we hear of Maximus successfully breaking a love-spell which had been cast on the philosopher Sosipatra
Sosipatra
Sosipatra of Ephesus was a Neoplatonist philosopher and mystic who lived in the first half of the 4th century. The story of her life is told in Eunapius' Lives of the Sophists.-Life and education:...
by one of her relatives.
Around 350 Maximus left Pergamon in order to work in Ephesus as a philosophy teacher. Apparently Christians also participated in his instruction: a Christian named Sisinnius, who later became a Novatianist bishop in Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
, is said to have studied with Maximus. In the year 351 the later emperor Julian
Julian the Apostate
Julian "the Apostate" , commonly known as Julian, or also Julian the Philosopher, was Roman Emperor from 361 to 363 and a noted philosopher and Greek writer....
went to Pergamon, in order to study with Aedesius. Whilst there, Eusebius
Eusebius of Myndus
Eusebius of Myndus was a 4th century philosopher, a distinguished Neoplatonist. He is described by Eunapius as one of the links in the "Golden Chain" of Neoplatonism....
warned Julian against getting involved with the magic arts practised by Maximus, but his warning had the opposite effect, and Julian went to Ephesus between May 351 and April 352, in order to continue his training with Maximus there.
In November 355 Julian was appointed Caesar, and Julian remained in contact with Maximus. In 361, as emperor, Julian invited Priscus and Maximus to Constantinople. The two philosophers accepted the invitation. Maximus did not let himself be deterred by unfavorable omens, but is said to have explained that it was possible to force the favour of the Gods. Both Neoplatonists from now on remained near the emperor, who used them as religious-philosophical advisors and discussion partners. Eunapius states that Maximus and Priscus had no political authority, but also writes that Maximus became arrogantly inaccessible and used his influential position to personally enrich himself. Maximus travelled in the summer of 362 with Julian to Antioch
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes was an ancient city on the eastern side of the Orontes River. It is near the modern city of Antakya, Turkey.Founded near the end of the 4th century BC by Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander the Great's generals, Antioch eventually rivaled Alexandria as the chief city of the...
, and then in March 363 on the Persia campaign. Before the emperor died on 26 June 363 from a combat injury, he held a last philosophical conversation with Maximus and Priscus.
Maximus continued to receive imperial favour under Jovian, but after Jovian's death his enemies came after him. In spring 364 he was accused of causing a lengthy illness in the new emperors Valentinian I
Valentinian I
Valentinian I , also known as Valentinian the Great, was Roman emperor from 364 to 375. Upon becoming emperor he made his brother Valens his co-emperor, giving him rule of the eastern provinces while Valentinian retained the west....
and Valens
Valens
Valens was the Eastern Roman Emperor from 364 to 378. He was given the eastern half of the empire by his brother Valentinian I after the latter's accession to the throne...
. This accusation could not be confirmed, and was dropped. But his numerous opponents did not relent; in 365/366 he was again arrested and accused of having illegitimately enriched himself. A high fine was imposed, and he was sent "to Asia" - probably into his homeland - to find the penalty. Because he was not able to pay, he was tortured. Eunapius reported that Maximus wanted to kill himself, as he could no longer bear the pain, and his wife procured some poison. His wife drank the poison first, but Maximus then did not drink.
Later the proconsul of Asia, Clearchus
Clearchus (consul 384)
Clearchus was a Roman politician who was consul of the Roman Empire in 384 AD.-Career:Born into a moderately successful family in the region of Thesprotia, as a boy Clearchus was taught by the philosopher and sophist Nicoles...
, who was a supporter of the old religion, helped the prisoner. Clearchus provided for the release of the philosopher and restored a large part of his properties, which he had lost. Maximus began teaching philosophy again, and even dared to return to Constantinople.
Finally he was suspected of supporting a conspiracy against the emperor in the winter 371/372. He is said to have foreseen that the emperor Valens would "die a strange death, and would not be given burial or the honour of a tomb." Maximus was brought to Antioch, where Valens was at that time. The trial, at first, ran favorably for him, but he was sent to his hometown Ephesus, where the new proconsul of Asia, Festus, at the beginning of 372, executed him.
Works
The SudaSuda
The Suda or Souda is a massive 10th century Byzantine encyclopedia of the ancient Mediterranean world, formerly attributed to an author called Suidas. It is an encyclopedic lexicon, written in Greek, with 30,000 entries, many drawing from ancient sources that have since been lost, and often...
says that Maximus wrote a number of works including On Insoluble Contradictions, On Forecasts, On Numbers, and a commentary on Aristotle
Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
. Two lost commentaries are testified from other sources: one on the Categories
Categories (Aristotle)
The Categories is a text from Aristotle's Organon that enumerates all the possible kinds of thing that can be the subject or the predicate of a proposition...
, from which a fragment survives, and one on the Prior Analytics
Prior Analytics
The Prior Analytics is Aristotle's work on deductive reasoning, specifically the syllogism. It is also part of his Organon, which is the instrument or manual of logical and scientific methods....
, to which Themistius
Themistius
Themistius , named , was a statesman, rhetorician, and philosopher. He flourished in the reigns of Constantius II, Julian, Jovian, Valens, Gratian, and Theodosius I; and he enjoyed the favour of all those emperors, notwithstanding their many differences, and the fact that he himself was not a...
responded. Maximus is reported to have agreed with Eusebius
Eusebius of Myndus
Eusebius of Myndus was a 4th century philosopher, a distinguished Neoplatonist. He is described by Eunapius as one of the links in the "Golden Chain" of Neoplatonism....
, Iamblichus and Porphyry
Porphyry (philosopher)
Porphyry of Tyre , Porphyrios, AD 234–c. 305) was a Neoplatonic philosopher who was born in Tyre. He edited and published the Enneads, the only collection of the work of his teacher Plotinus. He also wrote many works himself on a wide variety of topics...
in asserting the perfection of the second and third figures of the syllogism
Syllogism
A syllogism is a kind of logical argument in which one proposition is inferred from two or more others of a certain form...
.