Mating disruption
Encyclopedia
Mating disruption is a pest management technique designed to control certain insect
infestations. Specifically, mating disruption involves the use of synthesized sex pheromones to disrupt the reproductive cycle of insects.
of interest to agriculture, such as those in the order
Lepidoptera
, females emit an airborne,very diluted, trail of a very specific chemical blend constituting that species' sex pheromone. This aerial trail is referred to as a pheromone plume.
Males of that species use the information contained in the pheromone plume to locate the emitting female
(known as a “calling” female). Mating disruption exploits the male insects' natural response to follow the plume by introducing a synthetic pheromone into the insects’ habitat
. The synthetic pheromone is a volatile organic chemical designed to mimic the species-specific sex pheromone produced by the female insect. The general effect of mating disruption is to confuse the male insects by masking the natural pheromone plumes, causing the males to follow “false pheromone trails” at the expense of finding mates, and affecting the males’ ability to respond to “calling" females. Consequently, the male population experiences a reduced probability of successfully locating and mating with females, which leads to the eventual cessation of breeding and collapse of the insect infestation. The California Department of Pesticide Regulation
, the California Department of Food and Agriculture
, and the United States Environmental Protection Agency
consider mating disruption to be among the most environmentally friendly treatments used to eradicate pest infestations. Mating disruption works best if large areas are treated with pheromones. Ten acres is a good minimum size for a successful MD program, but larger areas are preferable[2]
based control methods, kill insects directly, whereas mating disruption simply confuses male insects from accurately locating a mating partner, leading to the eventual collapse of the mating cycle[3]. Mating disruption, due to the specificity of the sex pheromone of the insect species, has the benefit of only affecting the males of that species, while leaving other non target species unaffected[3]. This allows for very targeted pest management, promoting the suppression of a single pest species, leaving the populations of beneficial insects (pollinators and natural enemies) intact. Mating disruption, like most pest management strategies, is a useful technique, but should not be considered a stand-alone treatment program[1] for it targets only a single species in plant production systems that usually have several pests of concern. Mating disruption is a valuable tool that should be used in Integrated Pest Management(IPM) programs.
Although pheromones have been extensively used for several decades around the globe, to date there is no documented public health evidence to suggest that agricultural use of synthetic pheromones is harmful to humans or to any other non-target species. Furthermore, unlike conventional pesticides to which pest invariably become resistant over the years due to the intense use of that (or similar) active ingredient, to date there is no evidence that targeted insect pests become resistant to pheromone mating disruption.
Regulatory agencies in the US rely on animal testing
to determine toxicity levels and chronic health effects of pheromones and other pesticides. Recently concerned citizens from the Bay Area and vicinity in California, worried by government plans to aerially spray pheromone mating disruption formulations to control the Light Brown Apple Moth extensively in nearby rural and urban areas demanded that US government regulatory agencies performed long term health studies of the effect of insect sex pheromones on humans instead of relying on animal testing
. The demand couldn't be met: the United States Environmental Protection Agency
does not permit long-term human studies to be conducted with any pesticide, mostly due to moral issues related to human exposure and experimentation[3]. Due to the absence of long-term human health studies, concerned citizens from the Bay Area in California vehemently objected to the use of synthetic sex pheromones to suppress the Light Brown Apple Moth. This caused an impasse, eradication efforts ceased, and now the Light Brown Apple Moth has established in California.
capsules. The capsules control the release rate of the pheromone into the surrounding environment. The capsules are small enough to be applied in the same method as used to spray insecticides. The effective field longevity of the microencapsulated pheromone formulations ranges from a few days to slightly more than a week, depending on climatic conditions, capsule size and chemical properties[1]. Microcapsules in the pheromone formulations are usually kept above a prescribed diameter to avoid the risk of inhalation by humans.
. Usually the effect of disruption of orientation of the male moths to females (or monitoring pheromone traps) can be detected by the reduction in moth capture in monitoring pheromone traps. The government campaign using areawide aerial microencapsulated pheromone applications failed to show any sign of mating disruption on the light brown apple moth populations in the treated area. It was found that the first aerial campaign was performed using an incomplete (the wrong) pheromone blend of the light brown apple moth (the wrong blend decreased tremendously the likelihood of success of the mating disruption program), and the LBAM microencapsulated formulation was untested, and finally, microencapsule formulations are notoriously known for their short field life, weak and erratic performance. Furthermore it is possible that the LBAM microencapsulated formulation used in the government campaign was unfit for aerial delivery in urban areas: although pheromone is safe, the formulation used had microcapsules of very small diameter which made it into a possible inhalation hazard that seems to be linked to an increase in allergenic reactions of the population in the target area. This set of LBAM mating disruption aerial applications done by the government has created tremendous dissent of the public in general as well as of several sectors of the scientific community. Now, several years later, the affected communities as well as the nascent US pheromone industry (which provides safer, yet very effective, alternatives to the use of conventional pesticides) are still suffering the ripple effects of these disastrous Bay Area LBAM eradication campaigns.
But there are numerous, successful pest suppression programs that rely on aerial dispersal of pheromone mating disruptants. One of the largest pheromone mating disruption programs in the globe is the Gypsy Moth Slow the Spread. Gypsy Moth Slow the Spread has been implemented across the 1200 miles (1,931.2 km) gypsy moth frontier from Wisconsin to North Carolina. The program area is located ahead of the advancing front of the gypsy moth population. The STS program focuses on early detection and suppression of the low–level populations along this advancing front, disrupting the natural progress of population buildup and spread. Every year hundreds of thousands of acres are aerially sprayed with two pheromone Gypsy moth pheromone mating disruption formulations, SPLAT and Flakes. A single mating disruption formulation application promotes season-long suppression of gypsy moth in the treated areas. With a crew of 8 people it was possible to aerially treat with SPLAT GM over 20000 acres (80.9 km²) of forest in a single day. The consortium of Federal and State participants have been able to do the following:
• decrease the new territory invaded by the gypsy moth each year from 15600 square miles (40,403.8 km²) to 6000 square miles (15,539.9 km²);
• protect forests, forest–based industries, urban and rural parks, and private property; and
• avoid at least $22 million per year in damage and management costs.
It seems that the tremendous success of the Gypsy Moth Slow the Spread program is related to extremely well planned campaigns, which involves communication, transparency and clarity of objectives: in advance to an application STS holds meetings that include the area population in general, concerned citizens, public officials, scientists and technical personnel to discuss strategies of management of Gypsy moth in the areas of concern. There is a movement requesting that new government invasive species eradication campaigns model their pest suppression actions on the existing successful suppression programs like GM STS, and embrace a more effective policy of communication, transparency and clarity of objectives. With the involvement and education of the public, areawide eradication campaigns will be better planned and more able to deliver decisive end effective pest eradication actions.
Insect
Insects are a class of living creatures within the arthropods that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body , three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae...
infestations. Specifically, mating disruption involves the use of synthesized sex pheromones to disrupt the reproductive cycle of insects.
Mechanism
In many insect speciesSpecies
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
of interest to agriculture, such as those in the order
Order (biology)
In scientific classification used in biology, the order is# a taxonomic rank used in the classification of organisms. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, family, genus, and species, with order fitting in between class and family...
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera is a large order of insects that includes moths and butterflies . It is one of the most widespread and widely recognizable insect orders in the world, encompassing moths and the three superfamilies of butterflies, skipper butterflies, and moth-butterflies...
, females emit an airborne,very diluted, trail of a very specific chemical blend constituting that species' sex pheromone. This aerial trail is referred to as a pheromone plume.
Males of that species use the information contained in the pheromone plume to locate the emitting female
Female
Female is the sex of an organism, or a part of an organism, which produces non-mobile ova .- Defining characteristics :The ova are defined as the larger gametes in a heterogamous reproduction system, while the smaller, usually motile gamete, the spermatozoon, is produced by the male...
(known as a “calling” female). Mating disruption exploits the male insects' natural response to follow the plume by introducing a synthetic pheromone into the insects’ habitat
Habitat
* Habitat , a place where a species lives and grows*Human habitat, a place where humans live, work or play** Space habitat, a space station intended as a permanent settlement...
. The synthetic pheromone is a volatile organic chemical designed to mimic the species-specific sex pheromone produced by the female insect. The general effect of mating disruption is to confuse the male insects by masking the natural pheromone plumes, causing the males to follow “false pheromone trails” at the expense of finding mates, and affecting the males’ ability to respond to “calling" females. Consequently, the male population experiences a reduced probability of successfully locating and mating with females, which leads to the eventual cessation of breeding and collapse of the insect infestation. The California Department of Pesticide Regulation
California Department of Pesticide Regulation
The California Department of Pesticide Regulation is one of six branches of the California Environmental Protection Agency. This regulatory program has had the status of an official government department since 1991 but has been in operation since the early 1920s as part of the California Department...
, the California Department of Food and Agriculture
California Department of Food and Agriculture
The California Department of Food and Agriculture , is a cabinet-level agency in the government of California. Established in 1919 by the California State Legislature and signed into law by Governor William Stephens, the Department of Food and Agriculture is responsible for ensuring the state's...
, and the United States Environmental Protection Agency
United States Environmental Protection Agency
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is an agency of the federal government of the United States charged with protecting human health and the environment, by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress...
consider mating disruption to be among the most environmentally friendly treatments used to eradicate pest infestations. Mating disruption works best if large areas are treated with pheromones. Ten acres is a good minimum size for a successful MD program, but larger areas are preferable[2]
Advantages of mating disruption
Pheromone programs are most effective when controlling low to moderate pest population densities. MD has also been identified as a pest control method in which the insect does not become resistant[1]. The scientific community, together with governmental agencies throughout the world, understands the benefits of mating disruption using species specific sex pheromones, and consider sex-pheromone-based insect control programs among the most environmentally friendly treatments to be used to manage and control insect pest populations. Insect pheromone has been successfully used as an effective tool to Slow the Spread and to eradicate pests from very large areas in the US; for example to control the Gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar), a devastating forestry pest, and to eradicate the boll weevil and pink bollworm, two of the most damaging pest of cotton. Conventional pesticidePesticide
Pesticides are substances or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest.A pesticide may be a chemical unicycle, biological agent , antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest...
based control methods, kill insects directly, whereas mating disruption simply confuses male insects from accurately locating a mating partner, leading to the eventual collapse of the mating cycle[3]. Mating disruption, due to the specificity of the sex pheromone of the insect species, has the benefit of only affecting the males of that species, while leaving other non target species unaffected[3]. This allows for very targeted pest management, promoting the suppression of a single pest species, leaving the populations of beneficial insects (pollinators and natural enemies) intact. Mating disruption, like most pest management strategies, is a useful technique, but should not be considered a stand-alone treatment program[1] for it targets only a single species in plant production systems that usually have several pests of concern. Mating disruption is a valuable tool that should be used in Integrated Pest Management(IPM) programs.
Although pheromones have been extensively used for several decades around the globe, to date there is no documented public health evidence to suggest that agricultural use of synthetic pheromones is harmful to humans or to any other non-target species. Furthermore, unlike conventional pesticides to which pest invariably become resistant over the years due to the intense use of that (or similar) active ingredient, to date there is no evidence that targeted insect pests become resistant to pheromone mating disruption.
Disadvantages of mating disruption
A few technical disadvantages of pheromones in relation to the use of conventional pesticides: certain synthetic pheromones can have high development and production costs, resulting in mating disruption being too costly for controlling pest infestations in certain commodities. Most pheromone mating disruption formulations are applied by hand, which is a costly and slow application technique. Novel pheromone mating disruption formulations being developed provide long lasting effect (e.g., depending on the target pest a single application of SPLAT controls the target pest for a complete reproductive cycle, or for the entire season) and can be mechanically applied, but dispersal techniques require specialized application technology and/or equipment. In some instances, especially for small growers, this may lower cost effectiveness of the treatment.Regulatory agencies in the US rely on animal testing
Animal testing
Animal testing, also known as animal experimentation, animal research, and in vivo testing, is the use of non-human animals in experiments. Worldwide it is estimated that the number of vertebrate animals—from zebrafish to non-human primates—ranges from the tens of millions to more than 100 million...
to determine toxicity levels and chronic health effects of pheromones and other pesticides. Recently concerned citizens from the Bay Area and vicinity in California, worried by government plans to aerially spray pheromone mating disruption formulations to control the Light Brown Apple Moth extensively in nearby rural and urban areas demanded that US government regulatory agencies performed long term health studies of the effect of insect sex pheromones on humans instead of relying on animal testing
Animal testing
Animal testing, also known as animal experimentation, animal research, and in vivo testing, is the use of non-human animals in experiments. Worldwide it is estimated that the number of vertebrate animals—from zebrafish to non-human primates—ranges from the tens of millions to more than 100 million...
. The demand couldn't be met: the United States Environmental Protection Agency
United States Environmental Protection Agency
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is an agency of the federal government of the United States charged with protecting human health and the environment, by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress...
does not permit long-term human studies to be conducted with any pesticide, mostly due to moral issues related to human exposure and experimentation[3]. Due to the absence of long-term human health studies, concerned citizens from the Bay Area in California vehemently objected to the use of synthetic sex pheromones to suppress the Light Brown Apple Moth. This caused an impasse, eradication efforts ceased, and now the Light Brown Apple Moth has established in California.
Microencapsulated pheromones
Microencapsulated pheromones (MECs) are small droplets of pheromone enclosed within polymerPolymer
A polymer is a large molecule composed of repeating structural units. These subunits are typically connected by covalent chemical bonds...
capsules. The capsules control the release rate of the pheromone into the surrounding environment. The capsules are small enough to be applied in the same method as used to spray insecticides. The effective field longevity of the microencapsulated pheromone formulations ranges from a few days to slightly more than a week, depending on climatic conditions, capsule size and chemical properties[1]. Microcapsules in the pheromone formulations are usually kept above a prescribed diameter to avoid the risk of inhalation by humans.
Hand applied dispensers
- Hollow tube dispensers are plastic twist-tie type dispensers, plastic hollow fibers or plastic hollow microfibers fibers, filled with synthetic sex pheromone and placed throughout the area to be protected.
- Pheromone Baits and Stations are a stationary, attract and kill type of dispensers. Some are relatively large platform, containing a pheromone lure inside a glue board that ensnares the attracted insect. Other pheromone bait stations contain a pheromone lure in conjunction with a surface containing a dose of insecticide that reduces the attracted insect's fitness, thus reducing its ability to mate and reproduce.
- High-emission dispensers There are several very high dose pheromone dispensers, some do it passively, like pheromone sachets and large dollops of SPLAT pheromone formulations, others do it be actively releasing bursts of sex pheromone at timed intervals .
Monolithic Flowable dispensers
A new, effective and economical concept in pheromone delivery using a flowable formulation to create long lasting monolithic pheromone dispensers has been brought to the market in the past decade. These novel SPLAT pheromone mating disruption formulations can provide effective season long suppression effect (e.g., depending on the target pest a single application of SPLAT controls the target pest for a complete reproductive cycle, or for the entire season) and can be mechanically applied. Although mechanical dispersal techniques require specialized off-the-shelf application technology and/or equipment, once the application system is made to work it allows protection of extensive areas using pheromones, one of the most benign and effective pest management techniques available today. A benefit of SPLAT is that the dollop anchors where it lands, avoiding unwanted drift of the formulation once applied in the field.Aerial dispersal
In November 2007, a controversial aerial approach was used to spray microencapsulated LBAM pheromone in urban and rural areas of the counties of Santa Cruz and Monterey California to combat the invasive light brown apple mothLight brown apple moth
The light brown apple moth is a leafroller moth belonging to the lepidopteran family Tortricidae.-Adult moths:...
. Usually the effect of disruption of orientation of the male moths to females (or monitoring pheromone traps) can be detected by the reduction in moth capture in monitoring pheromone traps. The government campaign using areawide aerial microencapsulated pheromone applications failed to show any sign of mating disruption on the light brown apple moth populations in the treated area. It was found that the first aerial campaign was performed using an incomplete (the wrong) pheromone blend of the light brown apple moth (the wrong blend decreased tremendously the likelihood of success of the mating disruption program), and the LBAM microencapsulated formulation was untested, and finally, microencapsule formulations are notoriously known for their short field life, weak and erratic performance. Furthermore it is possible that the LBAM microencapsulated formulation used in the government campaign was unfit for aerial delivery in urban areas: although pheromone is safe, the formulation used had microcapsules of very small diameter which made it into a possible inhalation hazard that seems to be linked to an increase in allergenic reactions of the population in the target area. This set of LBAM mating disruption aerial applications done by the government has created tremendous dissent of the public in general as well as of several sectors of the scientific community. Now, several years later, the affected communities as well as the nascent US pheromone industry (which provides safer, yet very effective, alternatives to the use of conventional pesticides) are still suffering the ripple effects of these disastrous Bay Area LBAM eradication campaigns.
But there are numerous, successful pest suppression programs that rely on aerial dispersal of pheromone mating disruptants. One of the largest pheromone mating disruption programs in the globe is the Gypsy Moth Slow the Spread. Gypsy Moth Slow the Spread has been implemented across the 1200 miles (1,931.2 km) gypsy moth frontier from Wisconsin to North Carolina. The program area is located ahead of the advancing front of the gypsy moth population. The STS program focuses on early detection and suppression of the low–level populations along this advancing front, disrupting the natural progress of population buildup and spread. Every year hundreds of thousands of acres are aerially sprayed with two pheromone Gypsy moth pheromone mating disruption formulations, SPLAT and Flakes. A single mating disruption formulation application promotes season-long suppression of gypsy moth in the treated areas. With a crew of 8 people it was possible to aerially treat with SPLAT GM over 20000 acres (80.9 km²) of forest in a single day. The consortium of Federal and State participants have been able to do the following:
• decrease the new territory invaded by the gypsy moth each year from 15600 square miles (40,403.8 km²) to 6000 square miles (15,539.9 km²);
• protect forests, forest–based industries, urban and rural parks, and private property; and
• avoid at least $22 million per year in damage and management costs.
It seems that the tremendous success of the Gypsy Moth Slow the Spread program is related to extremely well planned campaigns, which involves communication, transparency and clarity of objectives: in advance to an application STS holds meetings that include the area population in general, concerned citizens, public officials, scientists and technical personnel to discuss strategies of management of Gypsy moth in the areas of concern. There is a movement requesting that new government invasive species eradication campaigns model their pest suppression actions on the existing successful suppression programs like GM STS, and embrace a more effective policy of communication, transparency and clarity of objectives. With the involvement and education of the public, areawide eradication campaigns will be better planned and more able to deliver decisive end effective pest eradication actions.
See also
- Integrated pest managementIntegrated Pest ManagementIntegrated pest management is an ecological approach to agricultural pest control that integrates pesticides/herbicides into a management system incorporating a range of practices for economic control of a pest...
- Pest (organism)
- PesticidePesticidePesticides are substances or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest.A pesticide may be a chemical unicycle, biological agent , antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest...
- Pheromones
- LBAM
- Codling mothCodling mothThe codling moth is a member of the Lepidopteran family Tortricidae. They are known as an agricultural pest, their larva being the common apple worm or maggot. It is native to Europe and was introduced to North America, where it has become one of the regular pests of apple orchards. It is found...