Libri tres contra Galileos
Encyclopedia
Libri tres contra Galileos (in brief Contra Galileos; in English, Three Books Against the Galilaeans, meaning Christian
s) was a Greek polemic
al essay written by the Roman
Emperor
Flavius Claudius Julianus
, commonly known as Julian the Apostate, during his short reign (361–363). Despite having been originally written in Greek
, it is better known under its Latin name, probably due to its extensive reference in the polemical response Contra Julianum by Cyril of Alexandria
.
The essay does not survive as a text. It is known only from fragments in the form of unfriendly references and quotations of it in other antique author
s. Its contents can be partially reconstructed, as Julian had - as a matter of both policy and personal belief - tried to stop the growing influence of Christianity
in the Roman Empire
. He believed that both divine truth and national security demanded support for the original pagan imperial cults
and ethnic religions of the Empire.
As part of this policy, Julian's governmental policies attempted to throw an unflattering light on ongoing disputes inside the Christian Church. In this essay Julian attempted to point out what he considered to be evidence, especially from these doctrinal disputes, of the mistakes and dangers of the Christian faith.
In one of his most incendiary assertions, Julian portrayed Christians as apostates from Judaism
, which the Emperor considered to be a very old and established religion that should be fully accepted. Julian was the last philosemite to lead the Roman Empire or its successor state, the Byzantine Empire
.
Julian's death in battle in 363 ended all prospect of the arguments set forth in Three Books Against the Galileans winning widespread acceptance. Instead, the essay was anathema
tized, and even the text was lost. We only know of Julian's arguments second-hand, through texts written by Christian authors who sought to refute Julian.
The Greek text and English translations of Julian's writings are available in
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
s) was a Greek polemic
Polemic
A polemic is a variety of arguments or controversies made against one opinion, doctrine, or person. Other variations of argument are debate and discussion...
al essay written by the Roman
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
Emperor
Emperor
An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife or a woman who rules in her own right...
Flavius Claudius Julianus
Julian the Apostate
Julian "the Apostate" , commonly known as Julian, or also Julian the Philosopher, was Roman Emperor from 361 to 363 and a noted philosopher and Greek writer....
, commonly known as Julian the Apostate, during his short reign (361–363). Despite having been originally written in Greek
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
, it is better known under its Latin name, probably due to its extensive reference in the polemical response Contra Julianum by Cyril of Alexandria
Cyril of Alexandria
Cyril of Alexandria was the Patriarch of Alexandria from 412 to 444. He came to power when the city was at its height of influence and power within the Roman Empire. Cyril wrote extensively and was a leading protagonist in the Christological controversies of the later 4th and 5th centuries...
.
The essay does not survive as a text. It is known only from fragments in the form of unfriendly references and quotations of it in other antique author
Author
An author is broadly defined as "the person who originates or gives existence to anything" and that authorship determines responsibility for what is created. Narrowly defined, an author is the originator of any written work.-Legal significance:...
s. Its contents can be partially reconstructed, as Julian had - as a matter of both policy and personal belief - tried to stop the growing influence of Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
in the Roman Empire
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
. He believed that both divine truth and national security demanded support for the original pagan imperial cults
Cult (religious practice)
In traditional usage, the cult of a religion, quite apart from its sacred writings , its theology or myths, or the personal faith of its believers, is the totality of external religious practice and observance, the neglect of which is the definition of impiety. Cult in this primary sense is...
and ethnic religions of the Empire.
As part of this policy, Julian's governmental policies attempted to throw an unflattering light on ongoing disputes inside the Christian Church. In this essay Julian attempted to point out what he considered to be evidence, especially from these doctrinal disputes, of the mistakes and dangers of the Christian faith.
In one of his most incendiary assertions, Julian portrayed Christians as apostates from Judaism
Judaism
Judaism ) is the "religion, philosophy, and way of life" of the Jewish people...
, which the Emperor considered to be a very old and established religion that should be fully accepted. Julian was the last philosemite to lead the Roman Empire or its successor state, the Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
.
Julian's death in battle in 363 ended all prospect of the arguments set forth in Three Books Against the Galileans winning widespread acceptance. Instead, the essay was anathema
Anathema
Anathema originally meant something lifted up as an offering to the gods; it later evolved to mean:...
tized, and even the text was lost. We only know of Julian's arguments second-hand, through texts written by Christian authors who sought to refute Julian.
External links
English translations available on the web:- Against the Galileans: remains of the 3 books, excerpted from Cyril of Alexandria, Contra Julianum. Transl. C.W. King, 1888.
The Greek text and English translations of Julian's writings are available in
- Wright, W.C., The Works of the Emperor Julian, Loeb Classical LibraryLoeb Classical LibraryThe Loeb Classical Library is a series of books, today published by Harvard University Press, which presents important works of ancient Greek and Latin Literature in a way designed to make the text accessible to the broadest possible audience, by presenting the original Greek or Latin text on each...
, Harvard University Press, 1913/1980, 3 Volumes. Volume 1, Volume 2, Volume 3, at the Internet ArchiveInternet ArchiveThe Internet Archive is a non-profit digital library with the stated mission of "universal access to all knowledge". It offers permanent storage and access to collections of digitized materials, including websites, music, moving images, and nearly 3 million public domain books. The Internet Archive...