Laplace transform - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

Mathematics

Mathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns and formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proofs, which are arguments sufficient to convince other mathematicians of their validity...

, the Laplace transform is a widely used integral transform. Denoted

, it is a linear operator of a function f(t) with a real argument t (t ≥ 0) that transforms it to a function F(s) with a complex argument s. This transformation is essentially bijective

Bijection

A bijection is a function giving an exact pairing of the elements of two sets. A bijection from the set X to the set Y has an inverse function from Y to X. If X and Y are finite sets, then the existence of a bijection means they have the same number of elements...

for the majority of practical uses; the respective pairs of f(t) and F(s) are matched in tables. The Laplace transform has the useful property that many relationships and operations over the originals f(t) correspond to simpler relationships and operations over the images F(s).
The Laplace transform has many important applications throughout the sciences. It is named for Pierre-Simon Laplace

Pierre-Simon Laplace

Pierre-Simon, marquis de Laplace was a French mathematician and astronomer whose work was pivotal to the development of mathematical astronomy and statistics. He summarized and extended the work of his predecessors in his five volume Mécanique Céleste...

who introduced the transform in his work on probability theory

Probability theory

Probability theory is the branch of mathematics concerned with analysis of random phenomena. The central objects of probability theory are random variables, stochastic processes, and events: mathematical abstractions of non-deterministic events or measured quantities that may either be single...

.

The Laplace transform is related to the Fourier transform

Fourier transform

In mathematics, Fourier analysis is a subject area which grew from the study of Fourier series. The subject began with the study of the way general functions may be represented by sums of simpler trigonometric functions...

, but whereas the Fourier transform resolves a function or signal into its modes of vibration

Vibration

Vibration refers to mechanical oscillations about an equilibrium point. The oscillations may be periodic such as the motion of a pendulum or random such as the movement of a tire on a gravel road.Vibration is occasionally "desirable"...

, the Laplace transform resolves a function into its moments

Moment (mathematics)

In mathematics, a moment is, loosely speaking, a quantitative measure of the shape of a set of points. The "second moment", for example, is widely used and measures the "width" of a set of points in one dimension or in higher dimensions measures the shape of a cloud of points as it could be fit by...

. Like the Fourier transform, the Laplace transform is used for solving differential and integral equations. In physics and engineering, it is used for analysis of linear time-invariant systems such as electrical circuits, harmonic oscillator

Harmonic oscillator

In classical mechanics, a harmonic oscillator is a system that, when displaced from its equilibrium position, experiences a restoring force, F, proportional to the displacement, x: \vec F = -k \vec x \, where k is a positive constant....

s, optical devices, and mechanical systems. In this analysis, the Laplace transform is often interpreted as a transformation from the time-domain, in which inputs and outputs are functions of time, to the frequency-domain, where the same inputs and outputs are functions of complex

Complex number

A complex number is a number consisting of a real part and an imaginary part. Complex numbers extend the idea of the one-dimensional number line to the two-dimensional complex plane by using the number line for the real part and adding a vertical axis to plot the imaginary part...

angular frequency

Angular frequency

In physics, angular frequency ω is a scalar measure of rotation rate. Angular frequency is the magnitude of the vector quantity angular velocity...

, in radians per unit time. Given a simple mathematical or functional description of an input or output to a system, the Laplace transform provides an alternative functional description that often simplifies the process of analyzing the behavior of the system, or in synthesizing a new system based on a set of specifications.

History

The Laplace transform is named in honor of mathematician

Mathematician

A mathematician is a person whose primary area of study is the field of mathematics. Mathematicians are concerned with quantity, structure, space, and change....

and astronomer

Astronomer

An astronomer is a scientist who studies celestial bodies such as planets, stars and galaxies.Historically, astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky, while astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using...

Pierre-Simon Laplace

, who used the transform in his work on probability theory

Probability theory

.
From 1744, Leonhard Euler

Leonhard Euler

Leonhard Euler was a pioneering Swiss mathematician and physicist. He made important discoveries in fields as diverse as infinitesimal calculus and graph theory. He also introduced much of the modern mathematical terminology and notation, particularly for mathematical analysis, such as the notion...

investigated integrals of the form

as solutions of differential equations but did not pursue the matter very far. Joseph Louis Lagrange

Joseph Louis Lagrange

Joseph-Louis Lagrange , born Giuseppe Lodovico Lagrangia, was a mathematician and astronomer, who was born in Turin, Piedmont, lived part of his life in Prussia and part in France, making significant contributions to all fields of analysis, to number theory, and to classical and celestial mechanics...

was an admirer of Euler and, in his work on integrating probability density function

Probability density function

In probability theory, a probability density function , or density of a continuous random variable is a function that describes the relative likelihood for this random variable to occur at a given point. The probability for the random variable to fall within a particular region is given by the...

s, investigated expressions of the form

which some modern historians have interpreted within modern Laplace transform theory.

These types of integrals seem first to have attracted Laplace's attention in 1782 where he was following in the spirit of Euler in using the integrals themselves as solutions of equations. However, in 1785, Laplace took the critical step forward when, rather than just looking for a solution in the form of an integral, he started to apply the transforms in the sense that was later to become popular. He used an integral of the form:

akin to a Mellin transform

Mellin transform

In mathematics, the Mellin transform is an integral transform that may be regarded as the multiplicative version of the two-sided Laplace transform...

, to transform the whole of a difference equation, in order to look for solutions of the transformed equation. He then went on to apply the Laplace transform in the same way and started to derive some of its properties, beginning to appreciate its potential power.

Laplace also recognised that Joseph Fourier

Joseph Fourier

Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier was a French mathematician and physicist best known for initiating the investigation of Fourier series and their applications to problems of heat transfer and vibrations. The Fourier transform and Fourier's Law are also named in his honour...

's method of Fourier series

Fourier series

In mathematics, a Fourier series decomposes periodic functions or periodic signals into the sum of a set of simple oscillating functions, namely sines and cosines...

for solving the diffusion equation could only apply to a limited region of space as the solutions were periodic. In 1809, Laplace applied his transform to find solutions that diffused indefinitely in space.

Formal definition

The Laplace transform of a function

Function (mathematics)

In mathematics, a function associates one quantity, the argument of the function, also known as the input, with another quantity, the value of the function, also known as the output. A function assigns exactly one output to each input. The argument and the value may be real numbers, but they can...

f(t), defined for all real number

Real number

In mathematics, a real number is a value that represents a quantity along a continuum, such as -5 , 4/3 , 8.6 , √2 and π...

s t ≥ 0, is the function F(s), defined by:

The parameter s is a complex number

Complex number

with real numbers σ and ω.

The meaning of the integral depends on types of functions of interest. A necessary condition for existence of the integral is that ƒ must be locally integrable on [0,∞). For locally integrable functions that decay at infinity or are of exponential type, the integral can be understood as a (proper) Lebesgue integral. However, for many applications it is necessary to regard it as a conditionally convergent improper integral

Improper integral

In calculus, an improper integral is the limit of a definite integral as an endpoint of the interval of integration approaches either a specified real number or ∞ or −∞ or, in some cases, as both endpoints approach limits....

at ∞. Still more generally, the integral can be understood in a weak sense

Distribution (mathematics)

In mathematical analysis, distributions are objects that generalize functions. Distributions make it possible to differentiate functions whose derivatives do not exist in the classical sense. In particular, any locally integrable function has a distributional derivative...

, and this is dealt with below.

One can define the Laplace transform of a finite Borel measure μ by the Lebesgue integral

An important special case is where μ is a probability measure

Probability measure

In mathematics, a probability measure is a real-valued function defined on a set of events in a probability space that satisfies measure properties such as countable additivity...

or, even more specifically, the Dirac delta function. In operational calculus

Operational calculus

Operational calculus, also known as operational analysis, is a technique by which problems in analysis, in particular differential equations, are transformed into algebraic problems, usually the problem of solving a polynomial equation.-History:...

, the Laplace transform of a measure is often treated as though the measure came from a distribution function

Distribution function

In molecular kinetic theory in physics, a particle's distribution function is a function of seven variables, f, which gives the number of particles per unit volume in phase space. It is the number of particles per unit volume having approximately the velocity near the place and time...

ƒ. In that case, to avoid potential confusion, one often writes

where the lower limit of 0⁻ is short notation to mean

This limit emphasizes that any point mass located at 0 is entirely captured by the Laplace transform. Although with the Lebesgue integral, it is not necessary to take such a limit, it does appear more naturally in connection with the Laplace–Stieltjes transform.

Probability theory

In pure

Probability theory

and applied probability

Applied probability

Much research involving probability is done under the auspices of applied probability, the application of probability theory to other scientific and engineering domains...

, the Laplace transform is defined by means of an expectation value. If X is a random variable

Random variable

In probability and statistics, a random variable or stochastic variable is, roughly speaking, a variable whose value results from a measurement on some type of random process. Formally, it is a function from a probability space, typically to the real numbers, which is measurable functionmeasurable...

with probability density function

Probability density function

ƒ, then the Laplace transform of ƒ is given by the expectation

By abuse of language

Abuse of notation

In mathematics, abuse of notation occurs when an author uses a mathematical notation in a way that is not formally correct but that seems likely to simplify the exposition or suggest the correct intuition . Abuse of notation should be contrasted with misuse of notation, which should be avoided...

, this is referred to as the Laplace transform of the random variable X itself. Replacing s by −t gives the moment generating function of X. The Laplace transform has applications throughout probability theory, including first passage times of stochastic processes such as Markov chain

Markov chain

A Markov chain, named after Andrey Markov, is a mathematical system that undergoes transitions from one state to another, between a finite or countable number of possible states. It is a random process characterized as memoryless: the next state depends only on the current state and not on the...

s, and renewal theory

Renewal theory

Renewal theory is the branch of probability theory that generalizes Poisson processes for arbitrary holding times. Applications include calculating the expected time for a monkey who is randomly tapping at a keyboard to type the word Macbeth and comparing the long-term benefits of different...

Bilateral Laplace transform

When one says "the Laplace transform" without qualification, the unilateral or one-sided transform is normally intended. The Laplace transform can be alternatively defined as the bilateral Laplace transform or two-sided Laplace transform

Two-sided Laplace transform

In mathematics, the two-sided Laplace transform or bilateral Laplace transform is an integral transform closely related to the Fourier transform, the Mellin transform, and the ordinary or one-sided Laplace transform...

by extending the limits of integration to be the entire real axis. If that is done the common unilateral transform simply becomes a special case of the bilateral transform where the definition of the function being transformed is multiplied by the Heaviside step function

Heaviside step function

The Heaviside step function, or the unit step function, usually denoted by H , is a discontinuous function whose value is zero for negative argument and one for positive argument....

.

The bilateral Laplace transform is defined as follows:

Inverse Laplace transform

The inverse Laplace transform is given by the following complex

Complex number

integral, which is known by various names (the Bromwich integral, the Fourier-Mellin integral, and Mellin's inverse formula):

where

is a real number so that the contour path of integration is in the region of convergence of F(s). An alternative formula for the inverse Laplace transform is given by Post's inversion formula

Post's inversion formula

Post's inversion formula for Laplace transforms, named after Emil Post, is a simple-looking but usually impractical formula for evaluating an inverse Laplace transform....

Region of convergence

If ƒ is a locally integrable function (or more generally a Borel measure locally of bounded variation), then the Laplace transform F(s) of ƒ converges provided that the limit

exists. The Laplace transform converges absolutely if the integral

exists (as a proper Lebesgue integral). The Laplace transform is usually understood as conditionally convergent, meaning that it converges in the former instead of the latter sense.

The set of values for which F(s) converges absolutely is either of the form
Re{s} > a or else Re{s} ≥ a, where a is an extended real constant, −∞ ≤ a ≤ ∞. (This follows from the dominated convergence theorem

Dominated convergence theorem

In measure theory, Lebesgue's dominated convergence theorem provides sufficient conditions under which two limit processes commute, namely Lebesgue integration and almost everywhere convergence of a sequence of functions...

.) The constant a is known as the abscissa of absolute convergence, and depends on the growth behavior of ƒ(t). Analogously, the two-sided transform converges absolutely in a strip of the form a < Re{s} < b, and possibly including the lines Re{s} = a or Re{s} = b. The subset of values of s for which the Laplace transform converges absolutely is called the region of absolute convergence or the domain of absolute convergence. In the two-sided case, it is sometimes called the strip of absolute convergence. The Laplace transform is analytic

Analytic function

In mathematics, an analytic function is a function that is locally given by a convergent power series. There exist both real analytic functions and complex analytic functions, categories that are similar in some ways, but different in others...

in the region of absolute convergence.

Similarly, the set of values for which F(s) converges (conditionally or absolutely) is known as the region of conditional convergence, or simply the region of convergence (ROC). If the Laplace transform converges (conditionally) at s = s₀, then it automatically converges for all s with Re{s} > Re{s₀}. Therefore the region of convergence is a half-plane of the form Re{s} > a, possibly including some points of the boundary line Re{s} = a. In the region of convergence Re{s} > Re{s₀}, the Laplace transform of ƒ can be expressed by integrating by parts

Integration by parts

In calculus, and more generally in mathematical analysis, integration by parts is a rule that transforms the integral of products of functions into other integrals...

as the integral

That is, in the region of convergence F(s) can effectively be expressed as the absolutely convergent Laplace transform of some other function. In particular, it is analytic.

A variety of theorems, in the form of Paley–Wiener theorem

Paley–Wiener theorem

In mathematics, a Paley–Wiener theorem is any theorem that relates decay properties of a function or distribution at infinity with analyticity of its Fourier transform. The theorem is named for Raymond Paley and Norbert Wiener . The original theorems did not use the language of distributions,...

s, exist concerning the relationship between the decay properties of ƒ and the properties of the Laplace transform within the region of convergence.

In engineering applications, a function corresponding to a linear time-invariant (LTI) system is stable if every bounded input produces a bounded output. This is equivalent to the absolute convergence of the Laplace transform of the impulse response function in the region Re{s} ≥ 0. As a result, LTI systems are stable provided the poles of the Laplace transform of the impulse response function have negative real part.

Properties and theorems

The Laplace transform has a number of properties that make it useful for analyzing linear dynamical system

Dynamical system

A dynamical system is a concept in mathematics where a fixed rule describes the time dependence of a point in a geometrical space. Examples include the mathematical models that describe the swinging of a clock pendulum, the flow of water in a pipe, and the number of fish each springtime in a...

s. The most significant advantage is that differentiation

Derivative

In calculus, a branch of mathematics, the derivative is a measure of how a function changes as its input changes. Loosely speaking, a derivative can be thought of as how much one quantity is changing in response to changes in some other quantity; for example, the derivative of the position of a...

and integration

Integral

Integration is an important concept in mathematics and, together with its inverse, differentiation, is one of the two main operations in calculus...

become multiplication and division, respectively, by s (similarly to logarithm

Logarithm

The logarithm of a number is the exponent by which another fixed value, the base, has to be raised to produce that number. For example, the logarithm of 1000 to base 10 is 3, because 1000 is 10 to the power 3: More generally, if x = by, then y is the logarithm of x to base b, and is written...

s changing multiplication of numbers to addition of their logarithms). Because of this property, the Laplace variable s is also known as operator variable in the L domain: either derivative operator or (for s⁻¹) integration operator. The transform turns integral equation

Integral equation

In mathematics, an integral equation is an equation in which an unknown function appears under an integral sign. There is a close connection between differential and integral equations, and some problems may be formulated either way...

s and differential equation

Differential equation

A differential equation is a mathematical equation for an unknown function of one or several variables that relates the values of the function itself and its derivatives of various orders...

s to polynomial equations, which are much easier to solve. Once solved, use of the inverse Laplace transform reverts back to the time domain.

Given the functions f(t) and g(t), and their respective Laplace transforms F(s) and G(s):

the following table is a list of properties of unilateral Laplace transform:
|+ Properties of the unilateral Laplace transform
!
! Time domain
! 's' domain
! Comment
|-
! Linearity
|

| Can be proved using basic rules of integration.
|-
! Frequency differentiation

Frequency

Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also referred to as temporal frequency.The period is the duration of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period is the reciprocal of the frequency...

is the first derivative

Derivative

.
|-
! Frequency differentiation

Frequency

| More general form, n^th derivative of F(s).
|-
! Differentiation

Derivative

| ƒ is assumed to be a differentiable function

Differentiable function

In calculus , a differentiable function is a function whose derivative exists at each point in its domain. The graph of a differentiable function must have a non-vertical tangent line at each point in its domain...

, and its derivative is assumed to be of exponential type. This can then be obtained by integration by parts

Integration by parts

In calculus, and more generally in mathematical analysis, integration by parts is a rule that transforms the integral of products of functions into other integrals...

|-
! Second Differentiation

Derivative

| ƒ is assumed twice differentiable and the second derivative to be of exponential type. Follows by applying the Differentiation property to

.
|-
! General Differentiation

Derivative

| ƒ is assumed to be n-times differentiable, with n^th derivative of exponential type. Follow by mathematical induction

Mathematical induction

Mathematical induction is a method of mathematical proof typically used to establish that a given statement is true of all natural numbers...

.
|-
! Frequency integration

Frequency

|
|-
! Integration

Integral

Integration is an important concept in mathematics and, together with its inverse, differentiation, is one of the two main operations in calculus...

is the Heaviside step function

Heaviside step function

The Heaviside step function, or the unit step function, usually denoted by H , is a discontinuous function whose value is zero for negative argument and one for positive argument....

. Note

is the convolution

Convolution

In mathematics and, in particular, functional analysis, convolution is a mathematical operation on two functions f and g, producing a third function that is typically viewed as a modified version of one of the original functions. Convolution is similar to cross-correlation...

and

.
|-
! Time scaling
|

|> ! Frequency shifting
|

|> ! Time shifting
|

is the Heaviside step function

Heaviside step function

The Heaviside step function, or the unit step function, usually denoted by H , is a discontinuous function whose value is zero for negative argument and one for positive argument....

> ! Multiplication

Multiplication

Multiplication is the mathematical operation of scaling one number by another. It is one of the four basic operations in elementary arithmetic ....

| the integration is done along the vertical line

that lies entirely within the region of convergence of F.> ! Convolution

Convolution

| ƒ(t) and g(t) are extended by zero for t < 0 in the definition of the convolution.> ! Complex conjugation
|

|> ! Cross-correlation

Cross-correlation

In signal processing, cross-correlation is a measure of similarity of two waveforms as a function of a time-lag applied to one of them. This is also known as a sliding dot product or sliding inner-product. It is commonly used for searching a long-duration signal for a shorter, known feature...

|> ! Periodic Function

Periodic function

In mathematics, a periodic function is a function that repeats its values in regular intervals or periods. The most important examples are the trigonometric functions, which repeat over intervals of length 2π radians. Periodic functions are used throughout science to describe oscillations,...

is a periodic function of period

Periodic function

so that

. This is the result of the time shifting property and the geometric series.>

Initial value theorem
Initial value theorem
In mathematical analysis, the initial value theorem is a theorem used to relate frequency domain expressions to the time domain behavior as time approaches zero.Let...

:

Final value theorem
Final value theorem
In mathematical analysis, the final value theorem is one of several similar theorems used to relate frequency domain expressions to the time domain behavior as time approaches infinity...

:

, if all poles of

are in the left half-plane.

The final value theorem is useful because it gives the long-term behaviour without having to perform partial fraction

Partial fraction

In algebra, the partial fraction decomposition or partial fraction expansion is a procedure used to reduce the degree of either the numerator or the denominator of a rational function ....

decompositions or other difficult algebra. If a function's poles are in the right-hand plane (e.g.

) the behaviour of this formula is undefined.

Proof of the Laplace transform of a function's derivative

It is often convenient to use the differentiation property of the Laplace transform to find the transform of a function's derivative. This can be derived from the basic expression for a Laplace transform as follows:

yielding

and in the bilateral case,

The general result

where fⁿ is the n-th derivative of f, can then be established with an inductive

Mathematical induction

Mathematical induction is a method of mathematical proof typically used to establish that a given statement is true of all natural numbers...

argument.

Evaluating improper integrals

Let

, then (see the table above)

Letting

, we get the identity

For example,

Another example is Dirichlet integral

Dirichlet integral

In mathematics, there are several integrals known as the Dirichlet integral, after the German mathematician Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet.One of those isThis can be derived from attempts to evaluate a double improper integral two different ways...

Laplace–Stieltjes transform

The (unilateral) Laplace–Stieltjes transform of a function g : R → R is defined by the Lebesgue–Stieltjes integral

The function g is assumed to be of bounded variation

Bounded variation

In mathematical analysis, a function of bounded variation, also known as a BV function, is a real-valued function whose total variation is bounded : the graph of a function having this property is well behaved in a precise sense...

. If g is the antiderivative

Antiderivative

In calculus, an "anti-derivative", antiderivative, primitive integral or indefinite integralof a function f is a function F whose derivative is equal to f, i.e., F ′ = f...

of ƒ:

then the Laplace–Stieltjes transform of g and the Laplace transform of ƒ coincide. In general, the Laplace–Stieltjes transform is the Laplace transform of the Stieltjes measure associated to g. So in practice, the only distinction between the two transforms is that the Laplace transform is thought of as operating on the density function of the measure, whereas the Laplace–Stieltjes transform is thought of as operating on its cumulative distribution function

Cumulative distribution function

In probability theory and statistics, the cumulative distribution function , or just distribution function, describes the probability that a real-valued random variable X with a given probability distribution will be found at a value less than or equal to x. Intuitively, it is the "area so far"...

Fourier transform

The continuous Fourier transform

Continuous Fourier transform

The Fourier transform is a mathematical operation that decomposes a function into its constituent frequencies, known as a frequency spectrum. For instance, the transform of a musical chord made up of pure notes is a mathematical representation of the amplitudes of the individual notes that make...

is equivalent to evaluating the bilateral Laplace transform with imaginary argument s = iω or s = 2πfi :

This expression excludes the scaling factor

, which is often included in definitions of the Fourier transform. This relationship between the Laplace and Fourier transforms is often used to determine the frequency spectrum

Frequency spectrum

The frequency spectrum of a time-domain signal is a representation of that signal in the frequency domain. The frequency spectrum can be generated via a Fourier transform of the signal, and the resulting values are usually presented as amplitude and phase, both plotted versus frequency.Any signal...

of a signal or dynamical system

Dynamical system

.

The above relation is valid as stated if and only if the region of convergence (ROC) of F(s) contains the imaginary axis, σ = 0. For example, the function f(t) = cos(ω₀t) has a Laplace transform F(s) = s/(s² + ω₀²) whose ROC is Re(s) > 0. As s = iω is a pole of F(s), substituting s = iω in F(s) does not yield the Fourier transform of f(t)u(t), which is proportional to the Dirac delta-function δ(ω-ω₀).

However, a relation of the form

holds under much weaker conditions. For instance, this holds for the above example provided that the limit is understood as a weak limit of measures (see vague topology

Vague topology

In mathematics, particularly in the area of functional analysis and topological vector spaces, the vague topology is an example of the weak-* topology which arises in the study of measures on locally compact Hausdorff spaces....

). General conditions relating the limit of the Laplace transform of a function on the boundary to the Fourier transform take the form of Paley-Wiener theorems.

Mellin transform

The Mellin transform

Mellin transform

In mathematics, the Mellin transform is an integral transform that may be regarded as the multiplicative version of the two-sided Laplace transform...

and its inverse are related to the two-sided Laplace transform by a simple change of variables. If in the Mellin transform

we set θ = e^-t we get a two-sided Laplace transform.

Z-transform

The unilateral or one-sided Z-transform

Z-transform

In mathematics and signal processing, the Z-transform converts a discrete time-domain signal, which is a sequence of real or complex numbers, into a complex frequency-domain representation....

is simply the Laplace transform of an ideally sampled signal with the substitution of

where

is the sampling period (in units of time e.g., seconds) and

is the sampling rate

Sampling rate

The sampling rate, sample rate, or sampling frequency defines the number of samples per unit of time taken from a continuous signal to make a discrete signal. For time-domain signals, the unit for sampling rate is hertz , sometimes noted as Sa/s...

(in samples per second or hertz

Hertz

The hertz is the SI unit of frequency defined as the number of cycles per second of a periodic phenomenon. One of its most common uses is the description of the sine wave, particularly those used in radio and audio applications....

)

Let

be a sampling impulse train (also called a Dirac comb

Dirac comb

In mathematics, a Dirac comb is a periodic Schwartz distribution constructed from Dirac delta functions...

) and

be the continuous-time representation of the sampled

are the discrete samples of

The Laplace transform of the sampled signal

This is precisely the definition of the unilateral Z-transform

Z-transform

In mathematics and signal processing, the Z-transform converts a discrete time-domain signal, which is a sequence of real or complex numbers, into a complex frequency-domain representation....

of the discrete function

with the substitution of

.

Comparing the last two equations, we find the relationship between the unilateral Z-transform

Z-transform

In mathematics and signal processing, the Z-transform converts a discrete time-domain signal, which is a sequence of real or complex numbers, into a complex frequency-domain representation....

and the Laplace transform of the sampled signal:

The similarity between the Z and Laplace transforms is expanded upon in the theory of time scale calculus

Time scale calculus

In mathematics, time-scale calculus is a unification of the theory of difference equations with that of differential equations, unifying integral and differential calculus with the calculus of finite differences, offering a formalism for studying hybrid discrete–continuous dynamical systems...

Borel transform

The integral form of the Borel transform

is a special case of the Laplace transform for ƒ an entire function

Entire function

In complex analysis, an entire function, also called an integral function, is a complex-valued function that is holomorphic over the whole complex plane...

of exponential type, meaning that

for some constants A and B. The generalized Borel transform allows a different weighting function to be used, rather than the exponential function, to transform functions not of exponential type. Nachbin's theorem

Nachbin's theorem

In mathematics, in the area of complex analysis, Nachbin's theorem is commonly used to establish a bound on the growth rates for an analytic function. This article will provide a brief review of growth rates, including the idea of a function of exponential type...

gives necessary and sufficient conditions for the Borel transform to be well defined.

Fundamental relationships

Since an ordinary Laplace transform can be written as a special case
of a two-sided transform, and since the two-sided transform can be written as
the sum of two one-sided transforms, the theory of the Laplace-, Fourier-, Mellin-, and Z-transforms are at bottom the same subject. However, a different point of view and different
characteristic problems are associated with each of these four major integral transforms.

Table of selected Laplace transforms

The following table provides Laplace transforms for many common functions of a single variable. For definitions and explanations, see the Explanatory Notes at the end of the table.

Because the Laplace transform is a linear operator:

The Laplace transform of a sum is the sum of Laplace transforms of each term.

The Laplace transform of a multiple of a function is that multiple times the Laplace transformation of that function.

The unilateral Laplace transform takes as input a function whose time domain is the non-negative reals, which is why all of the time domain functions in the table below are multiples of the Heaviside step function

Heaviside step function

The Heaviside step function, or the unit step function, usually denoted by H , is a discontinuous function whose value is zero for negative argument and one for positive argument....

, u(t). The entries of the table that involve a time delay τ are required to be causal

Causal system

A causal system is a system where the output depends on past/current inputs but not future inputs i.e...

(meaning that τ > 0). A causal system is a system where the impulse response

Impulse response

In signal processing, the impulse response, or impulse response function , of a dynamic system is its output when presented with a brief input signal, called an impulse. More generally, an impulse response refers to the reaction of any dynamic system in response to some external change...

h(t) is zero for all time t prior to t = 0. In general, the region of convergence for causal systems is not the same as that of anticausal system

Anticausal system

An anticausal system is a hypothetical system with outputs and internal states that depend solely on future input values. Some textbooks and published research literature might define an anticausal system to be one that does not depend on past input values An anticausal system is a hypothetical...

Function	Time domain	Laplace s-domain	Region of convergence	Reference
unit impulse Dirac delta function The Dirac delta function, or δ function, is a generalized function depending on a real parameter such that it is zero for all values of the parameter except when the parameter is zero, and its integral over the parameter from −∞ to ∞ is equal to one. It was introduced by theoretical...				inspection
delayed impulse				time shift of unit impulse
unit step Heaviside step function The Heaviside step function, or the unit step function, usually denoted by H , is a discontinuous function whose value is zero for negative argument and one for positive argument....				integrate unit impulse
delayed unit step				time shift of unit step
ramp Ramp function The ramp function is an elementary unary real function, easily computable as the mean of its independent variable and its absolute value.This function is applied in engineering...				integrate unit impulse twice
delayed nth power with frequency shift				Integrate unit step, apply frequency shift, apply time shift
nth power ( for integer n )				Integrate unit step n times
qth power ( for complex q )				ref?
nth power with frequency shift				Integrate unit step, apply frequency shift
exponential decay				Frequency shift of unit step
exponential approach				Unit step minus exponential decay
sine Sine In mathematics, the sine function is a function of an angle. In a right triangle, sine gives the ratio of the length of the side opposite to an angle to the length of the hypotenuse.Sine is usually listed first amongst the trigonometric functions....				ref?
cosine				ref?
hyperbolic sine				ref?
hyperbolic cosine				ref?
Exponentially-decaying sine wave				ref?
Exponentially-decaying cosine wave				ref?
nth root				ref?
natural logarithm Natural logarithm The natural logarithm is the logarithm to the base e, where e is an irrational and transcendental constant approximately equal to 2.718281828...				ref?
Bessel function Bessel function In mathematics, Bessel functions, first defined by the mathematician Daniel Bernoulli and generalized by Friedrich Bessel, are canonical solutions y of Bessel's differential equation:... of the first kind, of order n				ref?
Modified Bessel function Bessel function In mathematics, Bessel functions, first defined by the mathematician Daniel Bernoulli and generalized by Friedrich Bessel, are canonical solutions y of Bessel's differential equation:... of the first kind, of order n				ref?
Bessel function Bessel function In mathematics, Bessel functions, first defined by the mathematician Daniel Bernoulli and generalized by Friedrich Bessel, are canonical solutions y of Bessel's differential equation:... of the second kind, of order 0				ref?
Modified Bessel function Bessel function In mathematics, Bessel functions, first defined by the mathematician Daniel Bernoulli and generalized by Friedrich Bessel, are canonical solutions y of Bessel's differential equation:... of the second kind, of order 0				ref?
Confluent hypergeometric function Confluent hypergeometric function In mathematics, a confluent hypergeometric function is a solution of a confluent hypergeometric equation, which is a degenerate form of a hypergeometric differential equation where two of the three regular singularities merge into an irregular singularity...				ref?
Incomplete Gamma function Incomplete gamma function In mathematics, the gamma function is defined by a definite integral. The incomplete gamma function is defined as an integral function of the same integrand. There are two varieties of the incomplete gamma function: the upper incomplete gamma function is for the case that the lower limit of...				ref?
Error function Error function In mathematics, the error function is a special function of sigmoid shape which occurs in probability, statistics and partial differential equations...				ref?
Rational function Rational function In mathematics, a rational function is any function which can be written as the ratio of two polynomial functions. Neither the coefficients of the polynomials nor the values taken by the function are necessarily rational.-Definitions:... in s				Partial fraction expansion and nth power with frequency shift
Explanatory notes: represents the Heaviside step function Heaviside step function The Heaviside step function, or the unit step function, usually denoted by H , is a discontinuous function whose value is zero for negative argument and one for positive argument.... . represents the Dirac delta function Dirac delta function The Dirac delta function, or δ function, is a generalized function depending on a real parameter such that it is zero for all values of the parameter except when the parameter is zero, and its integral over the parameter from −∞ to ∞ is equal to one. It was introduced by theoretical... . represents the Gamma function Gamma function In mathematics, the gamma function is an extension of the factorial function, with its argument shifted down by 1, to real and complex numbers... . is the Euler–Mascheroni constant. , a real number, typically represents time, although it can represent any independent dimension. is the complex Complex number A complex number is a number consisting of a real part and an imaginary part. Complex numbers extend the idea of the one-dimensional number line to the two-dimensional complex plane by using the number line for the real part and adding a vertical axis to plot the imaginary part... angular frequency Angular frequency In physics, angular frequency ω is a scalar measure of rotation rate. Angular frequency is the magnitude of the vector quantity angular velocity... , and is its real part. , , , and are real numbers. is an integer Integer The integers are formed by the natural numbers together with the negatives of the non-zero natural numbers .They are known as Positive and Negative Integers respectively... .

s-Domain equivalent circuits and impedances

The Laplace transform is often used in circuit analysis, and simple conversions to the s-Domain of circuit elements can be made. Circuit elements can be transformed into impedance

Electrical impedance

Electrical impedance, or simply impedance, is the measure of the opposition that an electrical circuit presents to the passage of a current when a voltage is applied. In quantitative terms, it is the complex ratio of the voltage to the current in an alternating current circuit...

s, very similar to phasor impedances.

Here is a summary of equivalents:

Note that the resistor is exactly the same in the time domain and the s-Domain. The sources are put in if there are initial conditions on the circuit elements. For example, if a capacitor has an initial voltage across it, or if the inductor has an initial current through it, the sources inserted in the s-Domain account for that.

The equivalents for current and voltage sources are simply derived from the transformations in the table above.

Examples: How to apply the properties and theorems

The Laplace transform is used frequently in engineering

Engineering

Engineering is the discipline, art, skill and profession of acquiring and applying scientific, mathematical, economic, social, and practical knowledge, in order to design and build structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes that safely realize improvements to the lives of...

and physics

Physics

Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.Physics is one of the oldest academic...

; the output of a linear time invariant system can be calculated by convolving its unit impulse response

Impulse response

with the input signal. Performing this calculation in Laplace space turns the convolution

Convolution

into a multiplication

Multiplication

Multiplication is the mathematical operation of scaling one number by another. It is one of the four basic operations in elementary arithmetic ....

; the latter being easier to solve because of its algebraic form. For more information, see control theory

Control theory

Control theory is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering and mathematics that deals with the behavior of dynamical systems. The desired output of a system is called the reference...

.

The Laplace transform can also be used to solve differential equations and is used extensively in electrical engineering

Electrical engineering

Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics and electromagnetism. The field first became an identifiable occupation in the late nineteenth century after commercialization of the electric telegraph and electrical...

. The Laplace transform reduces a linear differential equation

Differential equation

A differential equation is a mathematical equation for an unknown function of one or several variables that relates the values of the function itself and its derivatives of various orders...

to an algebraic equation, which can then be solved by the formal rules of algebra. The original differential equation can then be solved by applying the inverse Laplace transform. The English electrical engineer Oliver Heaviside

Oliver Heaviside

Oliver Heaviside was a self-taught English electrical engineer, mathematician, and physicist who adapted complex numbers to the study of electrical circuits, invented mathematical techniques to the solution of differential equations , reformulated Maxwell's field equations in terms of electric and...

first proposed a similar scheme, although without using the Laplace transform; and the resulting operational calculus

Operational calculus

is credited as the Heaviside calculus.

Example 1: Solving a differential equation

In nuclear physics

Nuclear physics

Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons technology, but the research has provided application in many fields, including those...

, the following fundamental relationship governs radioactive decay

Radioactive decay

Radioactive decay is the process by which an atomic nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy by emitting ionizing particles . The emission is spontaneous, in that the atom decays without any physical interaction with another particle from outside the atom...

: the number of radioactive atoms N in a sample of a radioactive isotope

Isotope

Isotopes are variants of atoms of a particular chemical element, which have differing numbers of neutrons. Atoms of a particular element by definition must contain the same number of protons but may have a distinct number of neutrons which differs from atom to atom, without changing the designation...

decays at a rate proportional to N. This leads to the first order linear differential equation

where λ is the decay constant. The Laplace transform can be used to solve this equation.

Rearranging the equation to one side, we have

Next, we take the Laplace transform of both sides of the equation:

where

and

Solving, we find

Finally, we take the inverse Laplace transform to find the general solution

which is indeed the correct form for radioactive decay.

Example 2: Deriving the complex impedance for a capacitor

In the theory of electrical circuits, the current flow in a capacitor

Capacitor

A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric ; for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated...

is proportional to the capacitance and rate of change in the electrical potential (in SI

Si, si, or SI may refer to :- Measurement, mathematics and science :* International System of Units , the modern international standard version of the metric system...

units). Symbolically, this is expressed by the differential equation

where C is the capacitance (in farads) of the capacitor, i = i(t) is the electric current

Electric current

Electric current is a flow of electric charge through a medium.This charge is typically carried by moving electrons in a conductor such as wire...

(in amperes) through the capacitor as a function of time, and v = v(t) is the voltage (in volts) across the terminals of the capacitor, also as a function of time.

Taking the Laplace transform of this equation, we obtain

where

and

Solving for V(s) we have

The definition of the complex

Complex number

impedance

Electrical impedance

Z (in ohms) is the ratio of the complex voltage V divided by the complex current I while holding the initial state V_o at zero:

Using this definition and the previous equation, we find:

which is the correct expression for the complex impedance of a capacitor.

Example 3: Method of partial fraction expansion

Consider a linear time-invariant system with transfer function

Transfer function

A transfer function is a mathematical representation, in terms of spatial or temporal frequency, of the relation between the input and output of a linear time-invariant system. With optical imaging devices, for example, it is the Fourier transform of the point spread function i.e...

The impulse response

Impulse response

is simply the inverse Laplace transform of this transfer function:

To evaluate this inverse transform, we begin by expanding H(s) using the method of partial fraction

Partial fraction

In algebra, the partial fraction decomposition or partial fraction expansion is a procedure used to reduce the degree of either the numerator or the denominator of a rational function ....

expansion:

The unknown constants P and R are the residue

Residue (complex analysis)

In mathematics, more specifically complex analysis, the residue is a complex number proportional to the contour integral of a meromorphic function along a path enclosing one of its singularities...

s located at the corresponding poles of the transfer function. Each residue represents the relative contribution of that singularity

Mathematical singularity

In mathematics, a singularity is in general a point at which a given mathematical object is not defined, or a point of an exceptional set where it fails to be well-behaved in some particular way, such as differentiability...

to the transfer function's overall shape. By the residue theorem

Residue theorem

The residue theorem, sometimes called Cauchy's Residue Theorem, in complex analysis is a powerful tool to evaluate line integrals of analytic functions over closed curves and can often be used to compute real integrals as well. It generalizes the Cauchy integral theorem and Cauchy's integral formula...

, the inverse Laplace transform depends only upon the poles and their residues. To find the residue P, we multiply both sides of the equation by s + α to get

Then by letting s = −α, the contribution from R vanishes and all that is left is

Similarly, the residue R is given by

Note that

and so the substitution of R and P into the expanded expression for H(s) gives

Finally, using the linearity property and the known transform for exponential decay (see Item #3 in the Table of Laplace Transforms, above), we can take the inverse Laplace transform of H(s) to obtain:

which is the impulse response of the system.

Example 3.2: Convolution

The same result can be achieved using convolution property as if system is a series of filters with transfer functions of 1/(s+a) and 1/(s+b). That is, inverse of