Huan Wen
Encyclopedia
Huan Wen (312–373), courtesy name Yuanzi (元子), formally Duke Xuanwu of Nan Commandery (南郡宣武公), was a general of the Jin Dynasty (265-420)
. He is commonly viewed as one of the greatest generals since Jin's loss of northern China, as he led the campaign that destroyed Cheng Han
and annexed its lands to Jin, and had some successes against the northern states Former Qin
and Former Yan
(although both campaigns ultimately ended in failure, perhaps due to his overcautiousness). After his death, the Huan clan would be entrenched in the Jin power struction for decades, after his son Huan Xuan
temporarily usurped the Jin throne in 403 as the emperor
of Chu (楚), he was posthumously honored as Emperor Xuanwu of Chu with the temple name
of Taizu (太祖).
, who saw the boy and thought that the child was special. Huan Yi, because Wen had a high opinion of the child, thus named his son Wen, after Wen Jiao's family name.
In 328, during the rebellion of Su Jun
, Huan Yi tried to resist Su's forces, but was defeated and killed by Su's general Han Huang (韓晃), who received help from Huan Yi's subordinate Jiang Bo (江播). In 330, after Jiang had already died, Huan Wen killed Jiang's sons to avenge his father, and this was an act that brought him great fame. As he was considered capable, and his father had died for the imperial cause, he was selected as the husband for Emperor Cheng
's sister Sima Xingnan (司馬興男) the Princess Nankang. He inherited his father's title of the Baron of Wanning, and he gradually rose in rank, eventually becoming the governor of Xu Province (徐州, then modern central Jiangsu
). Emperor Cheng's uncle Yu Yi (庾翼) was impressed with his talent, and often endorsed him for even greater responsibilities. During Emperor Kang
's brief reign, Huan was one of the few officials who supported Yu's plan for a northern campaign against Later Zhao
in 343, although Yu's plan was never actually carried out. After Yu's death in 345 (during the reign of Emperor Mu
, then a toddler), the prime minister He Chong
(何充) commissioned Huan to succeed Yu, as the commander of the military forces in the western provinces (roughly modern Hubei
, Hunan
, Guizhou
, and Yunnan
), even though some other imperial officials had misgivings about Huan's ambitions and independence.
had mismanaged his state and lost the trust of his people. Most generals had concerns about the geographic barriers that isolated Cheng Han (which occupied modern Sichuan
and Chongqing
) from Jin, and that Later Zhao might make a surprise attack if it realized that Jin's forces were attacking Cheng Han. Late in 346, he launched the campaign. Li Shi sent his uncle Li Fu (李福), cousin Li Quan (李權), and Zan Jian (昝堅) to lead his forces to resist Huan, but Huan defeated Li Fu and then, abandoning most of his supplies and traveling light, quickly arrived in the vicinity of Cheng Han's capital Chengdu
. Zan Jian's forces, in fear, collapsed, instead of being able to regroup to try to save Chengdu.
However, Li Shi gathered the remaining troops and mounted a counterattack that was initially successful. Huan, in fear, ordered retreat—but his signal officer, in panic, beat his drums (signifying attack) rather than his gong (signifying retreat). The Jin forces attacked harder and defeated Cheng Han forces, allowing Huan to march upon Chengdu's gates. Li Shi fled, but soon had a messenger submit a humble surrender petition to Huan. He then surrendered in person after binding himself and bringing a coffin—signifying readiness to be executed. Huan released him and escorted him to the Jin capital Jiankang
, where Emperor Mu pardoned him and created him a marquess. To reward Huan, Emperor Mu created him the Duke of Linhe.
the Prince of Kuaiji, in order to counter Huan, invited a renowned official, Yin Hao
, to join in major decision-making with him and Cai Mo (蔡謨). This brought a rivalry that Huan and Yin had since their youth (when both were viewed as up-and-coming talent) into the open. The rivalry intensified after Yin seized more power late in 350 after accusing Cai of being disrespectful to the emperor (by repeatedly declining an honor that was being bestowed on him) and demoting Cai to commoner status.
Over the next few years, as Later Zhao collapsed in the midst of internecine wars between the emperor Shi Hu
's sons and adoptive grandson Shi Min after Shi Hu's death in 349, Huan repeatedly requested the imperial government to authorize him to advance north to try to recover northern China for Jin, but he was repeatedly rebuffed, even after a campaign by Emperor Mu's maternal grandfather Chu Pou (褚裒) ended badly. Around the new year 352, Huan, upset that his requests were being repeatedly denied, mobilized his troops and gestured as if he were about to attack the capital. Yin was shocked, and initially considered either resigning or send the imperial banner of peace (Zouyu Fan, 騶虞幡) to order Huan to stop. After advice from Wang Biaozhi (王彪之), however, he instead asked Sima Yu to write a carefully worded letter to Huan, persuading Huan to stop.
Yin, meanwhile, was preparing his own campaigns, and he launched one campaign in the middle of 352 and one late in 352—the second one being thoroughly disastrous, as he offended and intimidated the general Yao Xiang (姚襄) into rebellion, and was ambushed by Yao at great loss of life and materials. The people despised Yin for his military losses, and Huan submitted a petition demanding Yin's ouster. The imperial government was compelled to demote Yin to commoner status and exile him. From that point on, the imperial government largely no longer dared to deny Huan's requests.
, in 354. His army defeated much of Former Qin's resistance, reaching all the way to the vicinity of Former Qin's capital Chang'an
-- but Huan hesitated at making one final assault against Chang'an. It was at this time that Huan met Wang Meng, who came to see him. Huan was impressed at Wang's knowledge and tactics, and he asked Wang why the people of the Qin lands were not shifting their allegiance to Jin, and Wang pointed out that the people were not sure what Huan's intentions were, given that he hesitated at crossing the Ba River (灞水), just east of Chang'an. As the situation stalemated, Huan began to run out of food supplies was forced to withdraw. He invited Wang to withdraw with him, but Wang declined, apparently believing that Huan was not the right person to follow. (Wang would eventually become the prime minister of the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān
a decade later.)
-- the capital until its fall in 311 to Han Zhao
- but the imperial government declined, instead ordering him to first attack Yao Xiang, who had taken many cities in the Luoyang region after rebelling against Yin Hao earlier. Huan advanced his troops to Luoyang and faced Yao in battle, and he eluded a trap Yao laid for him and dealt Yao a major defeat, forcing Yao to head west. (Yao would eventually be captured and killed by Former Qin in 357.) Huan secured the Luoyang region for Jin. He, in 362, reproposed the idea of moving the capital back to Luoyang, but the imperial government again declined.
, Wang Tanzhi (王坦之), Chi Chao (郗超), Wang Xun (王珣), and Xie Xuan
(謝玄). He did not carry out another northern campaign, apparently not willing to face the capable Former Yan general Murong Ke
in battle. (Indeed, when Murong Ke's brother, the Former Yan emperor Murong Jun
died in 360 and was succeeded by his young son Murong Wei
, contrary to the optimism that many Jin officials had that with Murong Jun out of the way that Former Yan would be weakened, Huan commented, "Murong Ke is still alive, and I am afraid that we have an even greater problem.") In 364, Emperor Ai
, who succeeded Emperor Mu in 361, suffered a poisoning after taking pills given to him by magicians in search of immortality
, and Huan was initially summoned to the capital to serve as regent
, but a second order was then issued him cancelling that summon. Instead, he set up his base at Zheqi (赭圻, in modern Wuhu, Anhui
) and monitored the situation at Jiankang remotely.
In 365, Murong Ke attacked Luoyang, and initially, Huan and Sima Yu were planning a counterattack to relieve Luoyang, but the plan was cancelled after Emperor Ai died in spring 365. Soon, Luoyang fell.
Late in 365, the Jin general Sima Xun (司馬勳), the governor of Liang Province (梁州, modern southern Shaanxi
), who had participated in many campaigns, rebelled, and Huan commissioned one of his generals, Zhu Xu (朱序), to attack Sima. Sima was soon captured and killed.
After Murong Ke died in 367, Huan began to plan to attack Former Yan, whose regime was now largely in the hands of Murong Wei's granduncle Murong Ping
the Prince of Shangyong, regarded as incompetent and corrupt, and Murong Wei's mother Empress Dowager Kezuhun
. In 369, he launched the campaign, in conjunction with Chi Chao's father Chi Yin (郗愔), his brother Huan Chong
, and Yuan Zhen (袁真), although he soon seized Chi Yin's troops and put them under his own command. Despite Chi Chao's advice that he head directly for Former Yan's capital Yecheng
, Huan proceeded slowly, defeating Former Yan's troops repeatedly but taking three months to reach the Yellow River
, stoppinging Fangtou (枋頭, in modern Hebi
, Henan
) -- and again hesitated there at crossing the Yellow River and attacking Yecheng, not far away.
Murong Wei and Empress Dowager Kezuhun were panicking and planning to flee back to the old capital Helong (和龍, in modern Jinzhou
, Liaoning
), but Murong Wei's uncle Murong Chui
the Prince of Wu offered to make one last attempt to resist Huan. Murong Chui and his brother Murong De
engaged Huan, dealing him minor losses. Meanwhile, the Jin army's food supply was running out (as a supply plan that Huan put Yuan in charge of was failing in light of the failure to build a canal quickly). Huan began to withdraw, and Murong Chui and Murong De set up a trap for Huan's army, nearly annihilating it. Soon, Former Qin forces, from which Former Yan had sought assistance from, also arrived, and Huan was dealt another major defeat. Huan, humiliated at the greatest defeat in his career, deflected blame by accusing Yuan of being unable to supply food and ordered that Yuan be demoted to commoner status. Yuan, instead of submitting, occupied Shouchun (壽春, in modern Lu'an
, Anhui
) and rebelled, seeking assistance from both Former Yan and Former Qin.
on him, and then he could take the throne. Once, he had asked the fortuneteller Du Jiong (杜炅), who had a reputation for accurate prophecies, to see what he can achieve. Du's response was, "Your achievements are as great as the universe, and you will reach the highest rank among imperial subjects." This made Huan rather unhappy, as he hoped to be more than an imperial subject.
After recovering Shouchun, he asked Chi Chao whether the humiliation at the Battle of Fangtou had been removed—and Chi honestly told him that it had not. Instead, they planned an alternate strategy to try to showcase Huan's power—deposing Emperor Fei
. Because Emperor Fei had been cautious in his behavior and lacked faults, they decided to spread rumors that Emperor Fei was impotent and unable to bear children—and that his sons, by his concubines Consort Tian and Consort Meng, had in fact been biological sons of men that he favored, Xiang Long (相龍), Ji Hao (計好), and Zhu Lingbao (朱靈寶). (The rumors also implied a homosexual relationship between Emperor Fei and Xiang, Ji, and Zhu.) He then went to the capital and intimidated Emperor Kang's wife, Empress Dowager Chu
, to issue an edict that he had drafted deposing Emperor Fei. Emperor Fei was reduced to the rank of Prince of Donghai, and then further to Duke of Haixi, and put under heavy guard. Huan made his granduncle, Sima Yu the Prince of Kuaiji, emperor (as Emperor Jianwen), apparently believing that the easy-going Sima Yu would be easy to control. Meanwhile, he carried out several acts intended to both terrorize imperial officials and to affirm his power—he deposed Emperor Jianwen's brother Sima Xi (司馬唏) the Prince of Wuling, and killed many members of the honored Yin and Yu clans under false accusations of treason. (He wanted to kill Sima Xi as well, but Emperor Jianwen wrote humble letters to him begging for Sima Xi's life, and Huan was unable to insist on Sima Xi's death.)
," and "If the child can be assisted, assist him; otherwise, take the throne yourself," mirroring language that Liu Bei
, the founding emperor of Shu Han
, used when entrusting his son Liu Shan
to Zhuge Liang
. With Huan not in the capital to affirm it, however, Wang Tanzhi persuaded Emperor Jianwen to tear up the will and rewrite the instructions as, "All major affairs shall be submitted to the Grand Marshall, under the precedents of Zhuge Liang and Wang Dao
," greatly reducing any legitimacy Huan might have if he should try to take the throne.
Emperor Jianwen soon died, and was succeeded by his son Sima Yao the Crown Prince
(as Emperor Xiaowu
). With Huan not in the capital, actual power at the capital soon slipped into the hands of Xie An and Wang Tanzhi, a situation that greatly displeased Huan, who, however, when again summoned by Emperor Xiaowu and Empress Dowager Chu to serve as regent, declined. He did visit the capital in 373, and there was a rumor that he would execute Wang and Xie and then seize the throne. As Wang and Xie greeted him, however, he did not carry out the rumored actions, and after visiting the young emperor, returned to his base at Gushu (姑孰, in modern Ma'anshan
, Anhui
). He grew ill in fall 373, and, after entrusting matters to his brother Huan Chong, died. His domain was divided into three parts, governed by Huan Chong, another brother Huan Huo (桓豁), and his nephew Huan Shixiu (桓石秀). As Huan Chong was loyal to the imperial government, the threats of a Huan usurpation dissipated. (When, on his deathbed, Huan Wen was asked by Huan Chong what to do with Wang and Xie, his response was, "They will not let you handle them," meaning that while Wang and Xie were not daring to disobey him while alive, they would not obey Huan Chong after his death, and that killing them would not be helpful to Huan Chong either.) Despite imperial officials' secret happiness that Huan was dead, he was formally buried with great honors.
Jìn Dynasty (265-420)
The Jìn Dynasty , was a dynasty in Chinese history, lasting between the years 265 and 420 AD. There are two main divisions in the history of the Dynasty, the first being Western Jin and the second Eastern Jin...
. He is commonly viewed as one of the greatest generals since Jin's loss of northern China, as he led the campaign that destroyed Cheng Han
Cheng Han
The Cheng Han was a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms during the Jin Dynasty in China. It represented two states, the Cheng state proclaimed in 304 by Li Xiong and the Han state in 338 by Li Shou...
and annexed its lands to Jin, and had some successes against the northern states Former Qin
Former Qin
The Former Qin was a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms in China. Founded by the Fu family of the Di ethnicity, it completed the unification of North China in 376. Its capital had been Xi'an up to the death of the ruler Fu Jiān. Despite its name, the Former Qin was much later and less powerful than...
and Former Yan
Former Yan
The Former Yan was a state of Xianbei ethnicity during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China.Initially, Murong Huang and his son Murong Jun claimed the Jin Dynasty -created title "Prince of Yan," but subsequently, in 352, after seizing most of the former Later Zhao territory, Murong Juan would...
(although both campaigns ultimately ended in failure, perhaps due to his overcautiousness). After his death, the Huan clan would be entrenched in the Jin power struction for decades, after his son Huan Xuan
Huan Xuan
Huan Xuan , courtesy name Jingdao , nickname Lingbao , formally Emperor Wudao of Chu , was a Jin Dynasty warlord who briefly took over the imperial throne from Emperor An of Jin and declared his own state of Chu in 403, but was defeated by an uprising led by the general Liu Yu in 404 and killed...
temporarily usurped the Jin throne in 403 as the emperor
Emperor
An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife or a woman who rules in her own right...
of Chu (楚), he was posthumously honored as Emperor Xuanwu of Chu with the temple name
Temple name
Temple names are commonly used when naming most Chinese, Korean , and Vietnamese royalty. They should not be confused with era names. Compared to posthumous names, the use of temple names is more exclusive...
of Taizu (太祖).
Early life and career
Huan Wen was born in 313. His father Huan Yi (桓彝) was a commandery governor. When he was young, his father once received a visit from Wen JiaoWen Jiao
Wen Jiao , courtesy name Taizhen , formally Duke Zhongwu of Shi'an , was a renowned Jin Dynasty general and governor.-Family:...
, who saw the boy and thought that the child was special. Huan Yi, because Wen had a high opinion of the child, thus named his son Wen, after Wen Jiao's family name.
In 328, during the rebellion of Su Jun
Su Jun
Su Jun was a Jin Dynasty general, whose rebellion against Emperor Cheng's regent Yu Liang was initially successful, allowing him to take over the imperial government, but he was eventually defeated by Tao Kan and Wen Jiao's forces and killed in battle...
, Huan Yi tried to resist Su's forces, but was defeated and killed by Su's general Han Huang (韓晃), who received help from Huan Yi's subordinate Jiang Bo (江播). In 330, after Jiang had already died, Huan Wen killed Jiang's sons to avenge his father, and this was an act that brought him great fame. As he was considered capable, and his father had died for the imperial cause, he was selected as the husband for Emperor Cheng
Emperor Cheng of Jin
Emperor Cheng of Jin , personal name Sima Yan , courtesy name Shigen , was an emperor of the Eastern Jin Dynasty . He was the eldest son of Emperor Ming and became the crown prince on April 1, 325...
's sister Sima Xingnan (司馬興男) the Princess Nankang. He inherited his father's title of the Baron of Wanning, and he gradually rose in rank, eventually becoming the governor of Xu Province (徐州, then modern central Jiangsu
Jiangsu
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country. The name comes from jiang, short for the city of Jiangning , and su, for the city of Suzhou. The abbreviation for this province is "苏" , the second character of its name...
). Emperor Cheng's uncle Yu Yi (庾翼) was impressed with his talent, and often endorsed him for even greater responsibilities. During Emperor Kang
Emperor Kang of Jin
Emperor Kang of Jin , personal name Sima Yue , courtesy name Shitong , was an emperor of the Eastern Jin Dynasty . He was a son of Emperor Ming and younger brother of Emperor Cheng...
's brief reign, Huan was one of the few officials who supported Yu's plan for a northern campaign against Later Zhao
Later Zhao
The Later Zhao was a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms during the Jin Dynasty in China. It was founded by the Shi family of the Jie ethnicity...
in 343, although Yu's plan was never actually carried out. After Yu's death in 345 (during the reign of Emperor Mu
Emperor Mu of Jin
Emperor Mu of Jin , personal name Sima Dan , courtesy name Pengzi , was an emperor of the Eastern Jin Dynasty...
, then a toddler), the prime minister He Chong
He Chong
He Chong is a Chinese diver. He is the 2008 Olympic Champion in the 3m springboard.He split with partner Wang Feng after they won a gold medal in the 3m synchronised springboard event at the 2005 World Championships...
(何充) commissioned Huan to succeed Yu, as the commander of the military forces in the western provinces (roughly modern Hubei
Hubei
' Hupeh) is a province in Central China. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Lake Dongting...
, Hunan
Hunan
' is a province of South-Central China, located to the south of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and south of Lake Dongting...
, Guizhou
Guizhou
' is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country. Its provincial capital city is Guiyang.- History :...
, and Yunnan
Yunnan
Yunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
), even though some other imperial officials had misgivings about Huan's ambitions and independence.
Campaign against Cheng Han
Soon after taking over for Yu, the ambitious Huan turned his attention west, wanting to destroy Cheng Han, whose emperor Li ShiLi Shi
Li Shi , courtesy name Ziren , historically known by his Jin Dynasty -bestowed title Marquess of Guiyi , was the last emperor of the Chinese/Ba-Di state Cheng Han...
had mismanaged his state and lost the trust of his people. Most generals had concerns about the geographic barriers that isolated Cheng Han (which occupied modern Sichuan
Sichuan
' , known formerly in the West by its postal map spellings of Szechwan or Szechuan is a province in Southwest China with its capital in Chengdu...
and Chongqing
Chongqing
Chongqing is a major city in Southwest China and one of the five national central cities of China. Administratively, it is one of the PRC's four direct-controlled municipalities , and the only such municipality in inland China.The municipality was created on 14 March 1997, succeeding the...
) from Jin, and that Later Zhao might make a surprise attack if it realized that Jin's forces were attacking Cheng Han. Late in 346, he launched the campaign. Li Shi sent his uncle Li Fu (李福), cousin Li Quan (李權), and Zan Jian (昝堅) to lead his forces to resist Huan, but Huan defeated Li Fu and then, abandoning most of his supplies and traveling light, quickly arrived in the vicinity of Cheng Han's capital Chengdu
Chengdu
Chengdu , formerly transliterated Chengtu, is the capital of Sichuan province in Southwest China. It holds sub-provincial administrative status...
. Zan Jian's forces, in fear, collapsed, instead of being able to regroup to try to save Chengdu.
However, Li Shi gathered the remaining troops and mounted a counterattack that was initially successful. Huan, in fear, ordered retreat—but his signal officer, in panic, beat his drums (signifying attack) rather than his gong (signifying retreat). The Jin forces attacked harder and defeated Cheng Han forces, allowing Huan to march upon Chengdu's gates. Li Shi fled, but soon had a messenger submit a humble surrender petition to Huan. He then surrendered in person after binding himself and bringing a coffin—signifying readiness to be executed. Huan released him and escorted him to the Jin capital Jiankang
Jiankang
Jiankang was the capital city of the Eastern Jin Dynasty and Southern Dynasties. Its walls are extant ruins in the modern municipal region of Nanjing.-History:...
, where Emperor Mu pardoned him and created him a marquess. To reward Huan, Emperor Mu created him the Duke of Linhe.
Mutual suspicion with imperial officials
The victory over Cheng Han, however, brought fear in imperial officials that the ambitious Huan intended to control the government. Emperor Mu's granduncle Sima YuEmperor Jianwen of Jin
Emperor Jianwen of Jin , personal name Sima Yu , courtesy name Daowan , was an emperor of the Eastern Jin Dynasty in China. He was the younger brother of Emperor Ming and installed by military leader Huan Wen...
the Prince of Kuaiji, in order to counter Huan, invited a renowned official, Yin Hao
Yin Hao
Yin Hao , courtesy name Shenyuan , was a Jin Dynasty politician.Yin Hao was from an aristocratic family, and when he was young, he became known for intelligence and metaphysical discussions...
, to join in major decision-making with him and Cai Mo (蔡謨). This brought a rivalry that Huan and Yin had since their youth (when both were viewed as up-and-coming talent) into the open. The rivalry intensified after Yin seized more power late in 350 after accusing Cai of being disrespectful to the emperor (by repeatedly declining an honor that was being bestowed on him) and demoting Cai to commoner status.
Over the next few years, as Later Zhao collapsed in the midst of internecine wars between the emperor Shi Hu
Shi Hu
Shi Hu , courtesy name Jilong , formally Emperor Wu of Zhao , was an emperor of the Chinese/Jie state Later Zhao...
's sons and adoptive grandson Shi Min after Shi Hu's death in 349, Huan repeatedly requested the imperial government to authorize him to advance north to try to recover northern China for Jin, but he was repeatedly rebuffed, even after a campaign by Emperor Mu's maternal grandfather Chu Pou (褚裒) ended badly. Around the new year 352, Huan, upset that his requests were being repeatedly denied, mobilized his troops and gestured as if he were about to attack the capital. Yin was shocked, and initially considered either resigning or send the imperial banner of peace (Zouyu Fan, 騶虞幡) to order Huan to stop. After advice from Wang Biaozhi (王彪之), however, he instead asked Sima Yu to write a carefully worded letter to Huan, persuading Huan to stop.
Yin, meanwhile, was preparing his own campaigns, and he launched one campaign in the middle of 352 and one late in 352—the second one being thoroughly disastrous, as he offended and intimidated the general Yao Xiang (姚襄) into rebellion, and was ambushed by Yao at great loss of life and materials. The people despised Yin for his military losses, and Huan submitted a petition demanding Yin's ouster. The imperial government was compelled to demote Yin to commoner status and exile him. From that point on, the imperial government largely no longer dared to deny Huan's requests.
Against Former Qin
With Yin out of the picture, Huan launched a major attack against one of Later Zhao's successor states, Former QinFormer Qin
The Former Qin was a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms in China. Founded by the Fu family of the Di ethnicity, it completed the unification of North China in 376. Its capital had been Xi'an up to the death of the ruler Fu Jiān. Despite its name, the Former Qin was much later and less powerful than...
, in 354. His army defeated much of Former Qin's resistance, reaching all the way to the vicinity of Former Qin's capital Chang'an
Chang'an
Chang'an is an ancient capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history, today known as Xi'an. Chang'an literally means "Perpetual Peace" in Classical Chinese. During the short-lived Xin Dynasty, the city was renamed "Constant Peace" ; yet after its fall in AD 23, the old name was restored...
-- but Huan hesitated at making one final assault against Chang'an. It was at this time that Huan met Wang Meng, who came to see him. Huan was impressed at Wang's knowledge and tactics, and he asked Wang why the people of the Qin lands were not shifting their allegiance to Jin, and Wang pointed out that the people were not sure what Huan's intentions were, given that he hesitated at crossing the Ba River (灞水), just east of Chang'an. As the situation stalemated, Huan began to run out of food supplies was forced to withdraw. He invited Wang to withdraw with him, but Wang declined, apparently believing that Huan was not the right person to follow. (Wang would eventually become the prime minister of the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān
Fu Jian
Fu Jian may refer to:* Fú Jiàn , founding emperor of Former Qin, posthumous name Emperor Jingming* Fú Jiān , ruler of Former Qin, posthumous name Emperor Xuanzhao-See also:...
a decade later.)
Against Yao Xiang
In 356, Huan submitted a petition requesting that the capital be moved back to LuoyangLuoyang
Luoyang is a prefecture-level city in western Henan province of Central China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyang to the south, Sanmenxia to the west, Jiyuan to the north, and Jiaozuo to the northeast.Situated on the central plain of...
-- the capital until its fall in 311 to Han Zhao
Han Zhao
The Han Zhao , or Former Zhao, or Northern Han , was a Southern Xiongnu state during Sixteen Kingdoms period coeval with the Chinese Jin Dynasty...
- but the imperial government declined, instead ordering him to first attack Yao Xiang, who had taken many cities in the Luoyang region after rebelling against Yin Hao earlier. Huan advanced his troops to Luoyang and faced Yao in battle, and he eluded a trap Yao laid for him and dealt Yao a major defeat, forcing Yao to head west. (Yao would eventually be captured and killed by Former Qin in 357.) Huan secured the Luoyang region for Jin. He, in 362, reproposed the idea of moving the capital back to Luoyang, but the imperial government again declined.
Against Former Yan
For the next few years, Huan largely spent his effort in securing his power, as he invited many capable people to join his staff, including Xie AnXie An
200px|right|thumb|Statue of xie anXie An , courtesy name Anshi , formally Duke Wenjing of Luling , was a Jin Dynasty statesman who, despite his lack of military ability, led Jin through a major crisis—attacks by Former Qin...
, Wang Tanzhi (王坦之), Chi Chao (郗超), Wang Xun (王珣), and Xie Xuan
Xie Xuan
Xie Xuan , courtesy name Youdu , formally Duke Xianwu of Kangle , was a Jin Dynasty general who is best known for repelling the Former Qin army at the Battle of Fei River, preventing the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān from destroying Jin and uniting China.- Early career :Xie Xuan's father Xie Yi was...
(謝玄). He did not carry out another northern campaign, apparently not willing to face the capable Former Yan general Murong Ke
Murong Ke
Murong Ke , courtesy name Xuangong , formally Prince Huan of Taiyuan , was a famed general and statesman of the Chinese/Xianbei state Former Yan...
in battle. (Indeed, when Murong Ke's brother, the Former Yan emperor Murong Jun
Murong Jun
Murong Jun , courtesy name Xuanying , formally Emperor Jingzhao of Yan , was an emperor of the Chinese state Former Yan...
died in 360 and was succeeded by his young son Murong Wei
Murong Wei
Murong Wei , courtesy name Jingmao , formally Emperor You of Yan was the last emperor of the Chinese/Xianbei state Former Yan...
, contrary to the optimism that many Jin officials had that with Murong Jun out of the way that Former Yan would be weakened, Huan commented, "Murong Ke is still alive, and I am afraid that we have an even greater problem.") In 364, Emperor Ai
Emperor Ai of Jin
Emperor Ai of Jin , personal name Sima Pi , courtesy name Qianling , was an emperor of the Eastern Jin Dynasty . During his brief reign, the actual powers were largely in the hands of his granduncle Sima Yu the Prince of Kuaiji, and the paramount general Huan Wen...
, who succeeded Emperor Mu in 361, suffered a poisoning after taking pills given to him by magicians in search of immortality
Immortality
Immortality is the ability to live forever. It is unknown whether human physical immortality is an achievable condition. Biological forms have inherent limitations which may or may not be able to be overcome through medical interventions or engineering...
, and Huan was initially summoned to the capital to serve as regent
Regent
A regent, from the Latin regens "one who reigns", is a person selected to act as head of state because the ruler is a minor, not present, or debilitated. Currently there are only two ruling Regencies in the world, sovereign Liechtenstein and the Malaysian constitutive state of Terengganu...
, but a second order was then issued him cancelling that summon. Instead, he set up his base at Zheqi (赭圻, in modern Wuhu, Anhui
Anhui
Anhui is a province in the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny...
) and monitored the situation at Jiankang remotely.
In 365, Murong Ke attacked Luoyang, and initially, Huan and Sima Yu were planning a counterattack to relieve Luoyang, but the plan was cancelled after Emperor Ai died in spring 365. Soon, Luoyang fell.
Late in 365, the Jin general Sima Xun (司馬勳), the governor of Liang Province (梁州, modern southern Shaanxi
Shaanxi
' is a province in the central part of Mainland China, and it includes portions of the Loess Plateau on the middle reaches of the Yellow River in addition to the Qinling Mountains across the southern part of this province...
), who had participated in many campaigns, rebelled, and Huan commissioned one of his generals, Zhu Xu (朱序), to attack Sima. Sima was soon captured and killed.
After Murong Ke died in 367, Huan began to plan to attack Former Yan, whose regime was now largely in the hands of Murong Wei's granduncle Murong Ping
Murong Ping
Murong Ping was a regent of the Chinese/Xianbei state Former Yan during the reign of Murong Wei , after the death of the previous, far more capable regent Murong Ke...
the Prince of Shangyong, regarded as incompetent and corrupt, and Murong Wei's mother Empress Dowager Kezuhun
Empress Kezuhun (Jingzhao)
Empress Kezuhun was an empress of the Chinese/Xianbei state Former Yan. Her husband was Murong Jun .-During Murong Jun's reign:...
. In 369, he launched the campaign, in conjunction with Chi Chao's father Chi Yin (郗愔), his brother Huan Chong
Huan Chong
Huan Chong ), formally Duke Xuanmu of Fengcheng , was a Jin Dynasty governor and general and the youngest brother of Huan Wen. Contrary to the ambitious Huan Wen, who at times considered seizing the throne, Huan Chong was known to be dedicated to the preservation of the imperial government...
, and Yuan Zhen (袁真), although he soon seized Chi Yin's troops and put them under his own command. Despite Chi Chao's advice that he head directly for Former Yan's capital Yecheng
Ye, China
Ye or Yecheng was an ancient Chinese city located in what is now Linzhang County, Hebei and the neighbouring Anyang County, Henan....
, Huan proceeded slowly, defeating Former Yan's troops repeatedly but taking three months to reach the Yellow River
Yellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He, formerly known as the Hwang Ho, is the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into...
, stoppinging Fangtou (枋頭, in modern Hebi
Hebi
Hebi is a prefecture-level city in northern Henan province, People's Republic of China. Situated in mountainous terrain at the edge of the Shanxi plateau, Hebi is about 25 miles south of Anyang, 40 miles northeast of Xinxiang and 65 miles north of Kaifeng....
, Henan
Henan
Henan , is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "豫" , named after Yuzhou , a Han Dynasty state that included parts of Henan...
) -- and again hesitated there at crossing the Yellow River and attacking Yecheng, not far away.
Murong Wei and Empress Dowager Kezuhun were panicking and planning to flee back to the old capital Helong (和龍, in modern Jinzhou
Jinzhou
Jinzhou , is a prefecture-level city of Liaoning province, China. It is a geographically strategic city located in the "Liaoxi Corridor" , which connects land transportation between North China and Northeast China. Jinzhou is China's northernmost seaport and the coastal economic center of West...
, Liaoning
Liaoning
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the northeast of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "辽" , a name taken from the Liao River that flows through the province. "Níng" means "peace"...
), but Murong Wei's uncle Murong Chui
Murong Chui
Murong Chui , courtesy name Daoming , formally Emperor Wucheng of Yan was a great general of the Chinese/Xianbei state Former Yan who later became the founding emperor of Later Yan...
the Prince of Wu offered to make one last attempt to resist Huan. Murong Chui and his brother Murong De
Murong De
Murong De , name changed in 400 to Murong Beide , courtesy name Xuanming , formally Emperor Xianwu of Yan , was the founding emperor of the Chinese/Xianbei state Southern Yan...
engaged Huan, dealing him minor losses. Meanwhile, the Jin army's food supply was running out (as a supply plan that Huan put Yuan in charge of was failing in light of the failure to build a canal quickly). Huan began to withdraw, and Murong Chui and Murong De set up a trap for Huan's army, nearly annihilating it. Soon, Former Qin forces, from which Former Yan had sought assistance from, also arrived, and Huan was dealt another major defeat. Huan, humiliated at the greatest defeat in his career, deflected blame by accusing Yuan of being unable to supply food and ordered that Yuan be demoted to commoner status. Yuan, instead of submitting, occupied Shouchun (壽春, in modern Lu'an
Lu'an
Lu'an , is a prefecture-level city in western Anhui Province, People's Republic of China, with a population of 5,612,590 inhabitants at 2010 census. Its built up area is home to 1,482,729 inhabitants spread out on 2 urban districts...
, Anhui
Anhui
Anhui is a province in the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny...
) and rebelled, seeking assistance from both Former Yan and Former Qin.
Against Yuan Zhen's clan
With Huan's forces having been severely defeated, Yuan was able to hold Shouchun. He died in spring 370, and was succeeded by his son Yuan Jin (袁瑾). Huan's forces, under his generals Zhu Yao (竺瑤) and Huan Shiqian (桓石虔, Huan Wen's nephew) were able to defeat Former Yan and Former Qin forces sent in aid of Yuan Jin. In fall 370, Huan himself arrived at Shouchun and surrounded it. At that time, Former Yan was under a major attack by Former Qin's prime minister Wang Meng, and Former Yan forces withdrew. After Former Yan fell to Former Qin later that year, Shouchun was in even greater distress. Former Qin relief forces, sent in spring 371, were defeated by Huan. Huan then captured Shouchun and slaughtered Yuan's clan, along with the clan of his supporter Zhu Fu (朱輔).Removal of Emperor Fei
Huan had long considered seizing the Jin throne, and his original plan had been that if he had been able to destroy Former Yan, he would then return to Jiankang and force the imperial government to confer the nine bestowmentsNine bestowments
The nine bestowments were awards given by Chinese emperors to extraordinary officials, ostensibly to reward them for their accomplishments. The nine bestowments were awards given by Chinese emperors to extraordinary officials, ostensibly to reward them for their accomplishments. The nine...
on him, and then he could take the throne. Once, he had asked the fortuneteller Du Jiong (杜炅), who had a reputation for accurate prophecies, to see what he can achieve. Du's response was, "Your achievements are as great as the universe, and you will reach the highest rank among imperial subjects." This made Huan rather unhappy, as he hoped to be more than an imperial subject.
After recovering Shouchun, he asked Chi Chao whether the humiliation at the Battle of Fangtou had been removed—and Chi honestly told him that it had not. Instead, they planned an alternate strategy to try to showcase Huan's power—deposing Emperor Fei
Emperor Fei of Jin
Emperor Fei of Jin , personal name Sima Yi , courtesy name Yanling , was an emperor of the Eastern Jin Dynasty in China. He was the younger brother of Emperor Ai and later deposed by military leader Huan Wen...
. Because Emperor Fei had been cautious in his behavior and lacked faults, they decided to spread rumors that Emperor Fei was impotent and unable to bear children—and that his sons, by his concubines Consort Tian and Consort Meng, had in fact been biological sons of men that he favored, Xiang Long (相龍), Ji Hao (計好), and Zhu Lingbao (朱靈寶). (The rumors also implied a homosexual relationship between Emperor Fei and Xiang, Ji, and Zhu.) He then went to the capital and intimidated Emperor Kang's wife, Empress Dowager Chu
Empress Chu Suanzi
Empress Chu Suanzi , formally Empress Kangxian , at times as Empress Dowager Chongde , was an empress of Jin Dynasty...
, to issue an edict that he had drafted deposing Emperor Fei. Emperor Fei was reduced to the rank of Prince of Donghai, and then further to Duke of Haixi, and put under heavy guard. Huan made his granduncle, Sima Yu the Prince of Kuaiji, emperor (as Emperor Jianwen), apparently believing that the easy-going Sima Yu would be easy to control. Meanwhile, he carried out several acts intended to both terrorize imperial officials and to affirm his power—he deposed Emperor Jianwen's brother Sima Xi (司馬唏) the Prince of Wuling, and killed many members of the honored Yin and Yu clans under false accusations of treason. (He wanted to kill Sima Xi as well, but Emperor Jianwen wrote humble letters to him begging for Sima Xi's life, and Huan was unable to insist on Sima Xi's death.)
Hesitation at taking the throne and death
In 372, Emperor Jianwen grew ill, and he issued four successive edits summoning Huan to the capital—a strong indicator that he was willing to yield the throne to Huan—but Huan declined each time, apparently believing that the edicts were a trap. Indeed, Emperor Jianwen initially drafted a will that stated, "The Grand Marshall Huan Wen shall be regent under the precedent of the Duke of ZhouDuke of Zhou
The Duke of Zhou played a major role in consolidating the newly-founded Zhou Dynasty . He was the brother of King Wu of Zhou, the first king of the ancient Chinese Zhou Dynasty...
," and "If the child can be assisted, assist him; otherwise, take the throne yourself," mirroring language that Liu Bei
Liu Bei
Liu Bei , also known as Liu Xuande, was a warlord, military general and later the founding emperor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history...
, the founding emperor of Shu Han
Shu Han
Shu Han was one of the three states competing for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period, after the fall of the Han Dynasty. The state was based on areas around Sichuan, which was then known as Shu...
, used when entrusting his son Liu Shan
Liu Shan
Liu Shan, , was the second and last emperor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. As he ascended the throne at the young age of 16, Liu Shan was entrusted to the care of the Chancellor Zhuge Liang and Imperial Secretariat Li Yan...
to Zhuge Liang
Zhuge Liang
Zhuge Liang was a chancellor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He is often recognised as the greatest and most accomplished strategist of his era....
. With Huan not in the capital to affirm it, however, Wang Tanzhi persuaded Emperor Jianwen to tear up the will and rewrite the instructions as, "All major affairs shall be submitted to the Grand Marshall, under the precedents of Zhuge Liang and Wang Dao
Wang Dao
Wang Dao , courtesy name Maohong , formally Duke Wenxian of Shixing , was a Jin Dynasty statesman who served important roles in the administrations of Emperor Yuan, Emperor Ming, and Emperor Cheng, including as Emperor Cheng's regent...
," greatly reducing any legitimacy Huan might have if he should try to take the throne.
Emperor Jianwen soon died, and was succeeded by his son Sima Yao the Crown Prince
Crown Prince
A crown prince or crown princess is the heir or heiress apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The wife of a crown prince is also titled crown princess....
(as Emperor Xiaowu
Emperor Xiaowu of Jin
Emperor Xiaowu of Jin , personal name Sima Yao , courtesy name Changming , was an emperor of the Eastern Jin Dynasty in China...
). With Huan not in the capital, actual power at the capital soon slipped into the hands of Xie An and Wang Tanzhi, a situation that greatly displeased Huan, who, however, when again summoned by Emperor Xiaowu and Empress Dowager Chu to serve as regent, declined. He did visit the capital in 373, and there was a rumor that he would execute Wang and Xie and then seize the throne. As Wang and Xie greeted him, however, he did not carry out the rumored actions, and after visiting the young emperor, returned to his base at Gushu (姑孰, in modern Ma'anshan
Ma'anshan
Ma'anshan , also written as Maanshan, is a prefecture-level city in the east of Anhui province in Eastern China. An industrial city stretching across the Yangtze River, Ma'anshan borders Hefei to the west, Wuhu to the southwest, and Nanjing to the east...
, Anhui
Anhui
Anhui is a province in the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny...
). He grew ill in fall 373, and, after entrusting matters to his brother Huan Chong, died. His domain was divided into three parts, governed by Huan Chong, another brother Huan Huo (桓豁), and his nephew Huan Shixiu (桓石秀). As Huan Chong was loyal to the imperial government, the threats of a Huan usurpation dissipated. (When, on his deathbed, Huan Wen was asked by Huan Chong what to do with Wang and Xie, his response was, "They will not let you handle them," meaning that while Wang and Xie were not daring to disobey him while alive, they would not obey Huan Chong after his death, and that killing them would not be helpful to Huan Chong either.) Despite imperial officials' secret happiness that Huan was dead, he was formally buried with great honors.