Heiti
Encyclopedia
A heiti is a synonym
used in Old Norse poetry
in place of the normal word for something. For instance, Old Norse poets might use jór "steed" instead of the prosaic hestr "horse".
s in that a heiti is a simple word, whereas a kenning is a circumlocution in the form of a phrase or compound word; thus mækir is a heiti for "sword" (the usual word in prose is sverð), whereas grand hlífar "bane of shield" and ben-fúrr "wound-fire" are kennings for "sword".
However, Snorri Sturluson
, writing in the 13th century, understood heiti in a broader sense that could include kennings. Snorri termed simple words, poetic or otherwise, ókend heiti "unqualified terms". These he distinguished from circumlocutions, kend heiti "qualified terms" (i.e. kennings).
Heiti had a variety of origins. Some were archaic words: jór "steed", some loanwords: sinjór "lord" (from Latin senior, probably via Old French
seignor). Several kinds of synecdoche
and metonymy
were employed: barð "part of the prow of a ship" for "ship" as a whole; gotnar "Goths" for "men" or "people" in general; targa "targe" (a type of shield) for "shield" in general; stál "steel" for "weapons, warfare". A few heiti were metaphorical: hríð "storm" for "attack, (onset of) battle". Some were originally proper names: Hrotti, Laufi, Mistilteinn and Tyrfingr were all swords owned by legendary heroes. There were also heiti for specific individuals, especially gods (e.g. Grímnir, Fjölnir, Viðrir and many more for Odin
).
There were a great many heiti for certain concepts which the poets often dealt with, such as "man", "woman", "leader", and terms for weapons. Names of sækonungar "sea-kings" (legendary pirate leaders) constitute another large category. From these were formed kennings for "sea" and "ship", e.g. Rakna bifgrund "Rakni's shaking ground" = "the sea"; Þvinnils dýr "Thvinnil's beast" = "ship".
terms, are found in the poetic traditions of other early Germanic languages, e.g. Old English guma, secg : Old Norse gumi, seggr "man"; Old English heoru, mēce : Old Norse hjǫrr, mækir "sword". Many other languages, ancient and modern, have possessed a specialised poetic vocabulary more or less removed from everyday speech, often derived in similar ways to Old Norse heiti.
Synonym
Synonyms are different words with almost identical or similar meanings. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy. The word comes from Ancient Greek syn and onoma . The words car and automobile are synonyms...
used in Old Norse poetry
Old Norse poetry
Old Norse poetry encompasses a range of verse forms written in Old Norse, during the period from the 8th century to as late as the far end of the 13th century...
in place of the normal word for something. For instance, Old Norse poets might use jór "steed" instead of the prosaic hestr "horse".
Heiti and kennings
In the modern sense, heiti are distinguished from kenningKenning
A kenning is a type of literary trope, specifically circumlocution, in the form of a compound that employs figurative language in place of a more concrete single-word noun. Kennings are strongly associated with Old Norse and later Icelandic and Anglo-Saxon poetry...
s in that a heiti is a simple word, whereas a kenning is a circumlocution in the form of a phrase or compound word; thus mækir is a heiti for "sword" (the usual word in prose is sverð), whereas grand hlífar "bane of shield" and ben-fúrr "wound-fire" are kennings for "sword".
However, Snorri Sturluson
Snorri Sturluson
Snorri Sturluson was an Icelandic historian, poet, and politician. He was twice elected lawspeaker at the Icelandic parliament, the Althing...
, writing in the 13th century, understood heiti in a broader sense that could include kennings. Snorri termed simple words, poetic or otherwise, ókend heiti "unqualified terms". These he distinguished from circumlocutions, kend heiti "qualified terms" (i.e. kennings).
Types of heiti
Some heiti are words not normally found outside of verse, e.g. firar, one of numerous synonyms for menn "men, people". Others are common enough in prose but used by the poets in some specialised sense, such as salt "salt" to mean sjár "sea".Heiti had a variety of origins. Some were archaic words: jór "steed", some loanwords: sinjór "lord" (from Latin senior, probably via Old French
Old French
Old French was the Romance dialect continuum spoken in territories that span roughly the northern half of modern France and parts of modern Belgium and Switzerland from the 9th century to the 14th century...
seignor). Several kinds of synecdoche
Synecdoche
Synecdoche , meaning "simultaneous understanding") is a figure of speech in which a term is used in one of the following ways:* Part of something is used to refer to the whole thing , or...
and metonymy
Metonymy
Metonymy is a figure of speech used in rhetoric in which a thing or concept is not called by its own name, but by the name of something intimately associated with that thing or concept...
were employed: barð "part of the prow of a ship" for "ship" as a whole; gotnar "Goths" for "men" or "people" in general; targa "targe" (a type of shield) for "shield" in general; stál "steel" for "weapons, warfare". A few heiti were metaphorical: hríð "storm" for "attack, (onset of) battle". Some were originally proper names: Hrotti, Laufi, Mistilteinn and Tyrfingr were all swords owned by legendary heroes. There were also heiti for specific individuals, especially gods (e.g. Grímnir, Fjölnir, Viðrir and many more for Odin
Odin
Odin is a major god in Norse mythology and the ruler of Asgard. Homologous with the Anglo-Saxon "Wōden" and the Old High German "Wotan", the name is descended from Proto-Germanic "*Wodanaz" or "*Wōđanaz"....
).
There were a great many heiti for certain concepts which the poets often dealt with, such as "man", "woman", "leader", and terms for weapons. Names of sækonungar "sea-kings" (legendary pirate leaders) constitute another large category. From these were formed kennings for "sea" and "ship", e.g. Rakna bifgrund "Rakni's shaking ground" = "the sea"; Þvinnils dýr "Thvinnil's beast" = "ship".
Parallels
Analogous, and in some cases cognateCognate
In linguistics, cognates are words that have a common etymological origin. This learned term derives from the Latin cognatus . Cognates within the same language are called doublets. Strictly speaking, loanwords from another language are usually not meant by the term, e.g...
terms, are found in the poetic traditions of other early Germanic languages, e.g. Old English guma, secg : Old Norse gumi, seggr "man"; Old English heoru, mēce : Old Norse hjǫrr, mækir "sword". Many other languages, ancient and modern, have possessed a specialised poetic vocabulary more or less removed from everyday speech, often derived in similar ways to Old Norse heiti.
External links
- Nafnaþulur Lists of heiti appended to Snorri's EddaProse EddaThe Prose Edda, also known as the Younger Edda, Snorri's Edda or simply Edda, is an Icelandic collection of four sections interspersed with excerpts from earlier skaldic and Eddic poetry containing tales from Nordic mythology...
.