Explanatory Combinatorial Dictionary
Encyclopedia
A Explanatory Combinatorial Dictionary (ECD) is a formalized semantically-based lexicon
designed to be part of a Meaning-Text
linguistic model of a natural language. It contains the set of all minimal lexical signs
of a language—that is, its Lexical Units
(LUs). A complete ECD of any language plays a central role in a Meaning-Text linguistic model in establishing correspondences between a given Semantic Representation (SemR) and the Deep-Syntactic Representations (DSyntRs) of all the utterances that express this SemR. The function of the lexicon in this process is to be a depository of all lexical data—information related to individual LUs and necessary for a linguistic model to go from a given SemR to all corresponding DSyntRs (and beyond), as well as vice versa.
The ECD is a monolingual dictionary
, proposed in the late 1960s by Aleksandr Žolkovskij and Igor Mel'čuk
and was later further developed by Jurij Apresjan. Three ECDs are currently available in print, one for Russian, and two for French. A dictionary of Spanish collocations—DICE (= Diccionario de colocaciones del español)—is under development.
Related homphonous LUs that share non-trivial semantic components are grouped into vocables, so that this set reflects polysemy. The English vocable IMPROVE includes six LUs, each provided a separate lexical entry:
IMPROVE, verb
The lexicographic numbers (given in bold) reflect semantic distances between LUs within a vocable: Roman numerals mark the larger distances, while Arabic numerals mark smaller distances, and letters indicate the smallest distances. The four lexemes grouped under IMPROVEI are considered to be closer to each other than to IMPROVEII and IMPROVEIII, because they include the semantic component ‘improveI.1a’. IMPROVEI.1a and IMPROVEI.1b are especially close as the semantic alternation—’P’ ~ ‘cause1 to P’ —is very common in English.
The subscript and superscript numbers attached to words in the definition refer to subsenses (subscripts) and homophonous entries (superscripts) for a word as given in the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English —thus, “device11” refers to the first entry for device in this dictionary, first subsense.
The lexical sub-zone specifies the Lexical Functions that L participates in, covering both semantic derivations and collocations of L with individual LUs or very small and irregular groups of LUs. The stylistic sub-zone presents Usage Labels specifying, for the headword L, its speech register (informal, colloquial, vulgar, poetic, etc.), temporal (obsolescent, archaic) and geographical (British, Indian, Australian) variability, and the like.
The pragmatic sub-zone describes the real-life situations in which a particular expression is appropriate or inappropriate.
BAKE /bek/, verb, regular conjugation
‘Food’ BAKE
I.1a. X cooks1 solid Y … in device Z1... [John baked the potatoes in the oven].
I.1b. Solid Y cooks2 ... in device Z1... [The potatoes baked in 20 minutes].
I.1c. Device Z is used [by X] in bakingI.1a Y [This microwave bakes potatoes in 10 minutes].
I.2a. X creates solid food Y from W in device Z ... [John baked good rolls from corn flour].
I.2b. Y is bakedI.2a [by X] from W in device Z [The rolls baked quickly in the new oven].
I.2c. Device Z is used [by X] in bakingI.2a Y [This oven bakes good bread].
‘Hardening’ BAKE
II.1a. X causes that Y, which are raw bricks or pottery, become hard in device Z ... [John baked the bricks].
II.1b. Y is bakedII.1a [by X] in device Z [The bricks are baking now].
II.1c. Device Z is used [by X] in bakingII.1a Y [This kiln bakes excellent tiles].
II.2. Substance X becomes hard ... [The mud on the shore baked under the July sun].
‘Heat’ BAKE
III. People X1 in location X2 feel affected by heat ... [Boston was baking in a heat-wave].
‘Potato’ BAKE
I.1a.
Definition
X bakes Y in Z : X cooks1 solid11 Y by submitting Y to the indirect1 action6 of dry10 heat22 in an device1 Z1 or in contact1 with source1 Z2 of heat22.
Government Pattern
Jane baked the apples (in the oven/over the coals).
Lexical Functions
Examples
—Keep quiet, Jane is baking the potatoes! —How about some baked potatoes, my darling? In a microwave, you can bake Sturmers better 〈softer〉 than Golden Delicious. ~ In a microwave, Sturmers bake [= passive-potential] better 〈softer〉 than Golden Delicious. Ruritanians adore baking zucchini in hot ashes and eating them stuffed with eggs. Wrap the fish in foil and bake (for twenty minutes) (in a hot oven).
Linguistic comments
1) The component ‘indirect [action of dry heat]’ in the definition is necessary because of such contrasts as BAKE potatoes in their jackets 〈chicken in tin foil〉 vs. ROAST potatoes [must be peeled first and/or cut into pieces] 〈chicken [must be directly exposed to the heat, for at least part of the cooking period]〉.
2) The component ‘submit’ is an abbreviation for ‘cause2 to undergo’.
3) Here and below, Preploc stands for a locative preposition (which is chosen by the speaker according to its meaning): in, on, over, under, ...
4) Instead of X bakesI.1a Y, some speakers spontaneously use the construction X makes baked Y, as in For dessert, I’ll make some baked apples; the preference depends on Y. This fact is taken into account by putting MAKE BAKED Y as a synonym of BAKEI.1a.
I.1b.
Definition
Y bakes in Z : solid Y cooks2 _as a result_26 of being bakedI.1a [by X] or3 of undergoing the indirect1 action6 of dry10 heat22 in device1 Z1 or in contact1 with source1 Z2 of heat22.
Government Pattern
The apples baked (in the oven 〈on hot bricks〉).
Lexical Functions
Examples
—Keep quiet, the potatoes are baking! Sturmers bake better 〈softer〉 than Golden Delicious.
Linguistic comments
BAKEI.1b marginally allows situations of non-agentive baking. As a result, BAKEI.1b and BAKEI.2b are not quite parallel: The potatoes baked does not necessarily presuppose that someone baked them on purpose (they could have baked ‘themselves’ inadvertently—for instance, in a house fire); but The bread baked (in 15 minutes) presupposes a conscious creator. To account for the bizarre event of self-baking potatoes, the definition of BAKEI.1b contains the disjunctive component ‘... or undergoing the indirect1 action6 of dry10 heat22’.
I.1c.
Definition
Z bakes Y : Device1 Z used21 [by X] in bakingI.1a Y causes1 Y to bakeI.1b.
Government Pattern
This oven baked the potatoes in 15 minutes. This microwave bakes quite well.
Lexical Functions
I.2a.
Definition
X bakes Y from W in Z : ‘X creates1 solid1 food1b Y from a mixture1 W1 of W2, which is flour1 made11 of grain1 W3 or other powder-like foodstuff, with liquid21—by bakingI.1a W1 in Z’.
Government Pattern 1
Bob bakes good bread (from 〈= out of, with〉 imported flour) (in his new oven).
Bob bakes on Fridays.
Government Pattern 2
Leo baked imported flour into good bread (in his new oven).
Lexical Functions
Examples
—Keep quiet, Jane is baking the cake! In an old-fashioned oven, you can bake your buns to a turn, provided you don’t overbake them. Ruritanians adore fresh-baked bread. Alain bakes very well: for instance, he is an excellent baker of scones. Transfer the batter into a cake pan and bake for 20 minutes. Robert baked Caroline a beautiful birthday cake and promised to bake another for her friend next month. —From now on, you will bake in this new oven. Jamie offered me a fire cake (a mess of flour and water baked on a hot stone) [G. Vidal]. This nan [local bread] was baked directly over dried camel dung.
I.2b.
Definition
Y bakes in Z : Y becomes1 ready11 to be eaten1 _as a result_26 of being bakedI.2a [by X from W] in Z.
Government Pattern
The bread baked (in his new oven 〈over the fire〉) for 20 minutes.
Lexical Functions
Examples
—Your rolls baked to a turn in about twenty minutes.
I.2c.
Definition
Z bakes Y : Device Z used [by X] in bakingI.2a Y causes1 Y to bake
Government Pattern
This oven bakes rolls in 30 minutes.
Lexical Functions
II.1a.
Definition
X bakes Y in Z : X causes2 that Y, which is raw bricks or pottery, hardens1 by exposing Y to the action6 of dry10 heat22a in device1 Z.
Government Pattern
Greeks baked their amphorae (in primitive kilns).
Lexical Functions
Examples
They first dry their bricks and then bake them hard.
II.1b.
Definition
Y bakes in Z : Y hardens1 being bakedII.1a [by X] in Z.
Government Pattern
This amphora should bake (in the kiln) for 20 minutes.
Lexical Functions
Examples
Such bricks can bake in a regular oven.
II.1c.
Definition
Z bakes Y : Device1 Z used21 [by X] in bakingII.1a Y causes1 Y to bakeII.1b.
Government Pattern
This kiln bakes good bricks.
Examples
Leander’s kiln bakes tiles in huge batches.
II.2.
Definition
X bakes in Y : Substance1 X hardens1 by the action1 of dry10 heat22 caused1 by phenomenon1 Y.
Government Pattern
The mud baked (in the sun).
Examples
The earth floors baked stone-hard when the raging fire destroyed this modest dwelling.
III.
X bakes in Y : Humans2 X1 in location1 X2 feel12 intensely affected21 by dry10 heat22 caused1 by the sun12a or artificial1 rays21 Y.
Government Pattern
Jane was baking (in the sun 〈under the rays of the tropical sun〉).
Lexical Functions
Examples
Quebec was baking in a heat wave. Sylvain liked baking on the sunbed. —You’ll bake to a frazzle if you stay naked three minutes more! —Let me out, I’m baking in this stuffy room. Then I started treatment at Ospedale Maggiore for bending the knees, baking in a box of mirrors with violet rays, massage and bath [E. Hemingway].
Linguistic comments
1) The impossibility of *Jane was baking with fever [correct expression: Jane was burning with fever] is foreseen by the constraints on Y; the correct expression is supplied by the entry for FEVER, since burn = [Magn + Oper1](fever).
2) Consider the expression bake in the sun ‘be exposed to direct strong sun’ as seen in sentences (26):
a. For years, teens have spent hours baking in the sun in pursuit of the perfect golden tan.
This expression is a collocation of SUN12a—namely, MagnInvolv21(sun12a)—and therefore it should not be covered by the lexical entry for BAKEIII.
Notes
References
Lexicon
In linguistics, the lexicon of a language is its vocabulary, including its words and expressions. A lexicon is also a synonym of the word thesaurus. More formally, it is a language's inventory of lexemes. Coined in English 1603, the word "lexicon" derives from the Greek "λεξικόν" , neut...
designed to be part of a Meaning-Text
Meaning-Text Theory
Meaning–text theory is a theoretical linguistic framework, first put forward in Moscow by Aleksandr Žolkovskij and Igor Mel’čuk, for the construction of models of natural language...
linguistic model of a natural language. It contains the set of all minimal lexical signs
Signs
Signs is the plural of sign. See sign .Signs may also refer to:*Signs , a 2002 film by M. Night Shyamalan*Signs , a journal of women's studies...
of a language—that is, its Lexical Units
Lexical item
A Lexical item is a single word or chain of words that forms the basic elements of a language's lexicon . Examples are "cat", "traffic light", "take care of", "by-the-way", and "it's raining cats and dogs"...
(LUs). A complete ECD of any language plays a central role in a Meaning-Text linguistic model in establishing correspondences between a given Semantic Representation (SemR) and the Deep-Syntactic Representations (DSyntRs) of all the utterances that express this SemR. The function of the lexicon in this process is to be a depository of all lexical data—information related to individual LUs and necessary for a linguistic model to go from a given SemR to all corresponding DSyntRs (and beyond), as well as vice versa.
The ECD is a monolingual dictionary
Dictionary
A dictionary is a collection of words in one or more specific languages, often listed alphabetically, with usage information, definitions, etymologies, phonetics, pronunciations, and other information; or a book of words in one language with their equivalents in another, also known as a lexicon...
, proposed in the late 1960s by Aleksandr Žolkovskij and Igor Mel'čuk
Igor Mel'cuk
Igor Aleksandrovič Mel'čuk is a retired professor at the Department of linguistics and translation, Université de Montréal.He graduated from the Moscow State University's Philological department. Since 1956 he has worked for the Institute of the Science of Language in Moscow. Since 1974, he has...
and was later further developed by Jurij Apresjan. Three ECDs are currently available in print, one for Russian, and two for French. A dictionary of Spanish collocations—DICE (= Diccionario de colocaciones del español)—is under development.
Characteristics of the ECD
A ECD presents lexicographic data from the point of view of synthesis—that is, organized in the direction meaning to text in such a way as to enable the user to go from a given meaning to the corresponding utterances. Entries in the ECD are based on the semantic definition of the LU, and all the collocations of the LU are listed in its entry. The ECD includes lexemes and idioms and treats them in the same way—as LUs of the language, and every monosemous LU of the language should be, in principle, the target of a lexical entry.Related homphonous LUs that share non-trivial semantic components are grouped into vocables, so that this set reflects polysemy. The English vocable IMPROVE includes six LUs, each provided a separate lexical entry:
IMPROVE, verb
- IMPROVEI.1a X improves ≡ ‘The value or the quality of X becomes higher’
- [The weather suddenly improved; The system will improve over time]
- IMPROVEI.1b X improves Y ≡ ‘X causes1 that Y improvesI.1a’
- [The most recent changes drastically improved the system]
- IMPROVEI.2 X improves ≡ ‘The health of a sick person X improvesI.1a’
- [Jim is steadily improving]
- IMPROVEI.3 X improves at Y ≡ ‘X’s execution of Y improvesI.1a, which is caused1 by X’s having practiced or practicing Y’
- [Jim is steadily improving at algebra]
- IMPROVEII X improves Y by Z-ing ≡ ‘X voluntarily causes2 that the market value of a piece of real estate Y becomes higher by doing Z-ing to Y’
- [Jim improved his house by installing indoor plumbing]
- IMPROVEIII X improves upon Y ≡ ‘X creates a new Y´ by improvingI.1b Y’
- [Jim has drastically improved upon Patrick’s translation]
The lexicographic numbers (given in bold) reflect semantic distances between LUs within a vocable: Roman numerals mark the larger distances, while Arabic numerals mark smaller distances, and letters indicate the smallest distances. The four lexemes grouped under IMPROVEI are considered to be closer to each other than to IMPROVEII and IMPROVEIII, because they include the semantic component ‘improveI.1a’. IMPROVEI.1a and IMPROVEI.1b are especially close as the semantic alternation—’P’ ~ ‘cause1 to P’ —is very common in English.
The subscript and superscript numbers attached to words in the definition refer to subsenses (subscripts) and homophonous entries (superscripts) for a word as given in the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English —thus, “device11” refers to the first entry for device in this dictionary, first subsense.
Structure of the ECD entry
An ECD entry is a full description of an LU L divided into three major sections or "zones", following which are provided examples and, where necessary, technical linguistic commentary.The Semantic Zone
The Semantic Zone describes the semantic properties of L. It consists of two sub-zones: the definition of L, which fully specifies L’s meaning, and L’s connotations (meanings that the language associates with L, but that are not part of its definition).The Phonological/Graphematic Zone
The Phonological/Graphematic Zone gives all of the data on Ls phonological properties. Here again we find two sub-zones: L’s pronunciation, including its syllabification, and any non-standard prosodic properties, as well as L’s spelling variants, etc.The Cooccurrence Zone
The Cooccurrence Zone presents all of the data on Ls combinatorial properties. It is organized into five sub-zones, where L’s morphological, syntactic, lexical, stylistic, and pragmatic cooccurrence is specified. The morphological sub-zone contains inflectional data including conjugation/declension class, irregular forms, missing forms, permitted alternations, etc. The syntactic sub-zone has two sub-sub-zones:- a) The Government Pattern describes L's cooccurrence with its syntactic actants (Deep- and Surface-);
- b) Part of Speech and Syntactic Features describe L’s participation in specific constructions as a dependent.
The lexical sub-zone specifies the Lexical Functions that L participates in, covering both semantic derivations and collocations of L with individual LUs or very small and irregular groups of LUs. The stylistic sub-zone presents Usage Labels specifying, for the headword L, its speech register (informal, colloquial, vulgar, poetic, etc.), temporal (obsolescent, archaic) and geographical (British, Indian, Australian) variability, and the like.
The pragmatic sub-zone describes the real-life situations in which a particular expression is appropriate or inappropriate.
Partial ECD entry for an English vocable
The entry below is a partial ECD entry for the English vocable BAKE (v): from the Semantic Zone, only the Definition (excluding connotations) is given; from the Phonological/Graphemic Zone, only the pronunciation in IPA is provided; from the Cooccurrence Zone, the Government Pattern and Lexical Functions are given (excluding morphological data, syntactic features, etc.). Following these are given some examples and, in a fews cases, some linguistic commentary.BAKE /bek/, verb, regular conjugation
‘Food’ BAKE
I.1a. X cooks1 solid Y … in device Z1... [John baked the potatoes in the oven].
I.1b. Solid Y cooks2 ... in device Z1... [The potatoes baked in 20 minutes].
I.1c. Device Z is used [by X] in bakingI.1a Y [This microwave bakes potatoes in 10 minutes].
I.2a. X creates solid food Y from W in device Z ... [John baked good rolls from corn flour].
I.2b. Y is bakedI.2a [by X] from W in device Z [The rolls baked quickly in the new oven].
I.2c. Device Z is used [by X] in bakingI.2a Y [This oven bakes good bread].
‘Hardening’ BAKE
II.1a. X causes that Y, which are raw bricks or pottery, become hard in device Z ... [John baked the bricks].
II.1b. Y is bakedII.1a [by X] in device Z [The bricks are baking now].
II.1c. Device Z is used [by X] in bakingII.1a Y [This kiln bakes excellent tiles].
II.2. Substance X becomes hard ... [The mud on the shore baked under the July sun].
‘Heat’ BAKE
III. People X1 in location X2 feel affected by heat ... [Boston was baking in a heat-wave].
- ‘Food’ BAKE
‘Potato’ BAKE
I.1a.
Definition
X bakes Y in Z : X cooks1 solid11 Y by submitting Y to the indirect1 action6 of dry10 heat22 in an device1 Z1 or in contact1 with source1 Z2 of heat22.
Government Pattern
| X ⇔ I | Y ⇔ II | Z ⇔ III |
| 1. N | 1. N obligatory | 1. Preploc N |
Jane baked the apples (in the oven/over the coals).
Lexical Functions
| Syn | : make baked Y | Sinstr | : baking tray/sheet; baking tin, cake tin; foil | |
| Syn⊂ | : cook1 | Ver | : to a turn | |
| Syn∩ | : roast1 | too much, AntiVer | : //overbake | |
| Gener | : cook1 | not enough, AntiVer | : //underbake | |
| Conv23 | : bakeI.1b | S3usual = Sinstr-loc | : oven |
Examples
—Keep quiet, Jane is baking the potatoes! —How about some baked potatoes, my darling? In a microwave, you can bake Sturmers better 〈softer〉 than Golden Delicious. ~ In a microwave, Sturmers bake [= passive-potential] better 〈softer〉 than Golden Delicious. Ruritanians adore baking zucchini in hot ashes and eating them stuffed with eggs. Wrap the fish in foil and bake (for twenty minutes) (in a hot oven).
Linguistic comments
1) The component ‘indirect [action of dry heat]’ in the definition is necessary because of such contrasts as BAKE potatoes in their jackets 〈chicken in tin foil〉 vs. ROAST potatoes [must be peeled first and/or cut into pieces] 〈chicken [must be directly exposed to the heat, for at least part of the cooking period]〉.
2) The component ‘submit’ is an abbreviation for ‘cause2 to undergo’.
3) Here and below, Preploc stands for a locative preposition (which is chosen by the speaker according to its meaning): in, on, over, under, ...
4) Instead of X bakesI.1a Y, some speakers spontaneously use the construction X makes baked Y, as in For dessert, I’ll make some baked apples; the preference depends on Y. This fact is taken into account by putting MAKE BAKED Y as a synonym of BAKEI.1a.
I.1b.
Definition
Y bakes in Z : solid Y cooks2 _as a result_26 of being bakedI.1a [by X] or3 of undergoing the indirect1 action6 of dry10 heat22 in device1 Z1 or in contact1 with source1 Z2 of heat22.
Government Pattern
| Y ⇔ I | Z ⇔ II |
| 1. N | Preploc N |
The apples baked (in the oven 〈on hot bricks〉).
Lexical Functions
| Syn⊂ | : cook2 | S2usual = Sinstr-loc | : oven | |
| Syn∩ | : roast2 | Sinstr | : baking tray/sheet; baking tin, cake tin; foil | |
| Gener | : cook2 | Caus | : bakeI.1a |
Examples
—Keep quiet, the potatoes are baking! Sturmers bake better 〈softer〉 than Golden Delicious.
Linguistic comments
BAKEI.1b marginally allows situations of non-agentive baking. As a result, BAKEI.1b and BAKEI.2b are not quite parallel: The potatoes baked does not necessarily presuppose that someone baked them on purpose (they could have baked ‘themselves’ inadvertently—for instance, in a house fire); but The bread baked (in 15 minutes) presupposes a conscious creator. To account for the bizarre event of self-baking potatoes, the definition of BAKEI.1b contains the disjunctive component ‘... or undergoing the indirect1 action6 of dry10 heat22’.
I.1c.
Definition
Z bakes Y : Device1 Z used21 [by X] in bakingI.1a Y causes1 Y to bakeI.1b.
Government Pattern
| Z ⇔ I | Y ⇔ II |
| 1. N | 1. N |
This oven baked the potatoes in 15 minutes. This microwave bakes quite well.
Lexical Functions
| Ver | M2 ≠ Λ |
- ‘Bread’ BAKE
I.2a.
Definition
X bakes Y from W in Z : ‘X creates1 solid1 food1b Y from a mixture1 W1 of W2, which is flour1 made11 of grain1 W3 or other powder-like foodstuff, with liquid21—by bakingI.1a W1 in Z’.
Government Pattern 1
| X ⇔ I | Y ⇔ II | W ⇔ III | Z ⇔ IV |
| 1. N | 1. N | 1. from N 2. out of N 3. with N |
1. Preploc N |
| 1) CIII.1, 2 without CII | : undesirable |
| 2) CIII.3 | : N ≠ W3 |
Bob bakes good bread (from 〈= out of, with〉 imported flour) (in his new oven).
Bob bakes on Fridays.
| Undesirable | : ?Bob bakes from 〈out of〉 imported flour [by Constraint 1; correct expression: Bob bakes with imported flour]. |
| Impossible | : *Bob bakes good bread with imported wheat [by Constraint 2; correct expression: Bob bakes good bread from 〈out of〉 imported wheat]. |
Government Pattern 2
| X ⇔ I | Z ⇔ II | Y ⇔ III | W ⇔ IV |
| 1. N | 1. N obligatory | 1. into N obligatory | Preploc N |
| 1) CII | : N ≠ W3 |
Leo baked imported flour into good bread (in his new oven).
| ImpossIble | : *Leo baked imported wheat into good bread [by Constraint 1] |
Lexical Functions
| Syn⊂ | : make | professional-S1⊃ | : baker; confectioner | |
| Syn∩ | : cook1 | A2recentlyPerf | : //fresh-baked | |
| S2usual | : baked goods | S2⊃usual | : pie; pastry, charlotte; meatloaf |
|
| S3usual | : dough, batter; flour | S4usual= Sinstr-loc | : oven; Dutch oven | |
| shop which carries mostly baked goods or pastry ≈ Sloc |
: bakery; pastry shop, pâtisserie |
Ver | : to a turn | |
| too much, AntiVer | : //overbake | not enough, AntiVer | : //underbake |
Examples
—Keep quiet, Jane is baking the cake! In an old-fashioned oven, you can bake your buns to a turn, provided you don’t overbake them. Ruritanians adore fresh-baked bread. Alain bakes very well: for instance, he is an excellent baker of scones. Transfer the batter into a cake pan and bake for 20 minutes. Robert baked Caroline a beautiful birthday cake and promised to bake another for her friend next month. —From now on, you will bake in this new oven. Jamie offered me a fire cake (a mess of flour and water baked on a hot stone) [G. Vidal]. This nan [local bread] was baked directly over dried camel dung.
I.2b.
Definition
Y bakes in Z : Y becomes1 ready11 to be eaten1 _as a result_26 of being bakedI.2a [by X from W] in Z.
Government Pattern
| Y ⇔ I | Z ⇔ II |
| 1. Preploc N |
The bread baked (in his new oven 〈over the fire〉) for 20 minutes.
Lexical Functions
| Ver | : to a turn |
Examples
—Your rolls baked to a turn in about twenty minutes.
I.2c.
Definition
Z bakes Y : Device Z used [by X] in bakingI.2a Y causes1 Y to bake
Government Pattern
| Z ⇔ I | Y ⇔ II |
| 1. N | 1. N |
This oven bakes rolls in 30 minutes.
Lexical Functions
| Ver | : to a turn |
- ‘Hardening’ BAKE
II.1a.
Definition
X bakes Y in Z : X causes2 that Y, which is raw bricks or pottery, hardens1 by exposing Y to the action6 of dry10 heat22a in device1 Z.
Government Pattern
| X ⇔ I | Y ⇔ II | Z ⇔ III |
| 1. N | 1. N obligatory | 1. in N |
Greeks baked their amphorae (in primitive kilns).
Lexical Functions
| Syn | : fireV |
| S2usual | : bricks; pottery |
| S3usual = Sinstr-loc | : kiln |
| Magn | : hard |
Examples
They first dry their bricks and then bake them hard.
II.1b.
Definition
Y bakes in Z : Y hardens1 being bakedII.1a [by X] in Z.
Government Pattern
| Y ⇔ I | Z ⇔ II |
| 1. N | 1. in N |
This amphora should bake (in the kiln) for 20 minutes.
Lexical Functions
| Syn | : fire |
| S1usual | : bricks; pottery |
| S2usual = Sinstr-loc | : kiln |
| Magn | : hard < stone-hard |
Examples
Such bricks can bake in a regular oven.
II.1c.
Definition
Z bakes Y : Device1 Z used21 [by X] in bakingII.1a Y causes1 Y to bakeII.1b.
Government Pattern
| Z ⇔ I | Y ⇔ II |
| 1. N | 1. N |
This kiln bakes good bricks.
Examples
Leander’s kiln bakes tiles in huge batches.
II.2.
Definition
X bakes in Y : Substance1 X hardens1 by the action1 of dry10 heat22 caused1 by phenomenon1 Y.
Government Pattern
| X ⇔ I | Y ⇔ II |
| 1. N | 1. Adv2Caus N |
The mud baked (in the sun).
Examples
The earth floors baked stone-hard when the raging fire destroyed this modest dwelling.
- ‘Heat’ BAKE
III.
X bakes in Y : Humans2 X1 in location1 X2 feel12 intensely affected21 by dry10 heat22 caused1 by the sun12a or artificial1 rays21 Y.
Government Pattern
| X ⇔ I | Y ⇔ II |
| 1. N | 1. Adv2Caus N |
Jane was baking (in the sun 〈under the rays of the tropical sun〉).
Lexical Functions
| Syn | : fry |
| Syn∩ | : roast; burn; cookII, swelter |
| X = X2, A2 | : baking1 |
| as if the skin shriveled, Magn + AntiVer |
: Infml to a frazzle |
Examples
Quebec was baking in a heat wave. Sylvain liked baking on the sunbed. —You’ll bake to a frazzle if you stay naked three minutes more! —Let me out, I’m baking in this stuffy room. Then I started treatment at Ospedale Maggiore for bending the knees, baking in a box of mirrors with violet rays, massage and bath [E. Hemingway].
Linguistic comments
1) The impossibility of *Jane was baking with fever [correct expression: Jane was burning with fever] is foreseen by the constraints on Y; the correct expression is supplied by the entry for FEVER, since burn = [Magn + Oper1](fever).
2) Consider the expression bake in the sun ‘be exposed to direct strong sun’ as seen in sentences (26):
a. For years, teens have spent hours baking in the sun in pursuit of the perfect golden tan.
-
- b. You can almost smell the garbage baking in the sun.
This expression is a collocation of SUN12a—namely, MagnInvolv21(sun12a)—and therefore it should not be covered by the lexical entry for BAKEIII.
Notes
References