Exodus (poem)
Encyclopedia
Exodus is the title given to an Old English alliterative poem in the Junius manuscript (Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Junius 11). Exodus is not a paraphrase of the biblical book, but rather a re-telling of the story of the Israelites' flight from Egyptian captivity
and the Crossing of the Red Sea in the manner of a "heroic epic", much like Old English poems Andreas
, Judith, or even the non-religious Beowulf
. It is one of the densest, most allusive and complex poems in Old English, and is the focus of much critical debate.
is treated as a general, and military imagery pervades the battle scenes. The destruction of the Egyptians in the Red Sea is narrated in much the same way as a formulaic battle scene from other Old English poems, including a 'Beast of Battle' motif very common in the poetry.
The main story is suspended at one point to tell the stories of Noah and Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac. Some scholars consider this change of subject a feature of the "epic style" comparable with the similar digressions in Beowulf, while others have proposed it is a later interpolation. Edward B. Irving edited the poem twice, 1955 and 1981: the first edition excerpted the Noah and Abraham portion as a separate poem; on later reflection, Irving recanted, admitting it was an integrated part of the Exodus poem. There appears to be justification in patristic sermons for connecting the crossing of the Red Sea with these topics.
. Peter J. Lucas, for instance, has argued that the poem is an allegorical treatment of the Christian fight with the devil. The Crossing of the Red Sea has been seen as echoing the baptismal liturgy and prefiguring the entrance into Heaven. The Pharaoh may be associated with Satan through some subtle verbal echoes. However, these readings are still controversial and much-debated. A more balanced view would accept that though certain intermittent parts of the narrative of Exodus merge into typological allusion, this is not sustained throughout the poem.
The Exodus
The Exodus is the story of the departure of the Israelites from ancient Egypt described in the Hebrew Bible.Narrowly defined, the term refers only to the departure from Egypt described in the Book of Exodus; more widely, it takes in the subsequent law-givings and wanderings in the wilderness...
and the Crossing of the Red Sea in the manner of a "heroic epic", much like Old English poems Andreas
Andreas
Andreas is a common male name in Austria, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, Flanders, Germany, Greece, Italy, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and the Netherlands. The name derives from the Greek noun ἀνήρ – with genitive ἀνδρός –, which means "man" . See article on Andrew for more information...
, Judith, or even the non-religious Beowulf
Beowulf
Beowulf , but modern scholars agree in naming it after the hero whose life is its subject." of an Old English heroic epic poem consisting of 3182 alliterative long lines, set in Scandinavia, commonly cited as one of the most important works of Anglo-Saxon literature.It survives in a single...
. It is one of the densest, most allusive and complex poems in Old English, and is the focus of much critical debate.
Style and imagery
Exodus brings a traditional "heroic style" to its biblical subject-matter. MosesMoses
Moses was, according to the Hebrew Bible and Qur'an, a religious leader, lawgiver and prophet, to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed...
is treated as a general, and military imagery pervades the battle scenes. The destruction of the Egyptians in the Red Sea is narrated in much the same way as a formulaic battle scene from other Old English poems, including a 'Beast of Battle' motif very common in the poetry.
The main story is suspended at one point to tell the stories of Noah and Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac. Some scholars consider this change of subject a feature of the "epic style" comparable with the similar digressions in Beowulf, while others have proposed it is a later interpolation. Edward B. Irving edited the poem twice, 1955 and 1981: the first edition excerpted the Noah and Abraham portion as a separate poem; on later reflection, Irving recanted, admitting it was an integrated part of the Exodus poem. There appears to be justification in patristic sermons for connecting the crossing of the Red Sea with these topics.
Allegory
In recent decades, attention has shifted away from the "heroic" aspects of Exodus to consider its densely allusive structure and possible typologyTypology (theology)
Typology in Christian theology and Biblical exegesis is a doctrine or theory concerning the relationship between the Old and New Testaments...
. Peter J. Lucas, for instance, has argued that the poem is an allegorical treatment of the Christian fight with the devil. The Crossing of the Red Sea has been seen as echoing the baptismal liturgy and prefiguring the entrance into Heaven. The Pharaoh may be associated with Satan through some subtle verbal echoes. However, these readings are still controversial and much-debated. A more balanced view would accept that though certain intermittent parts of the narrative of Exodus merge into typological allusion, this is not sustained throughout the poem.
Further reading
- Old English Exodus
- ed. P.J. Lucas, Exodus. London, 1977. Revised edition: Exeter, 1994.
- ed. E.B. Irving (Jr), The Old English Exodus. New Haven, 1953. Reprinted: New Haven, 1970. Supplements:
- "New Notes on the Old English Exodus." AngliaAnglia (journal)Anglia, subtitled Zeitschrift für Englische Philologie is an German journal on English Linguistics. It was started in 1878. There are about three issues a year.-History:...
90 (1972): 289–324. - "Exodus retraced." Old English Studies in Honour of John C. Pope, ed. R.B. Burlin and E.B. Irving (Jr). Toronto, 1974.
- "New Notes on the Old English Exodus." Anglia
- ed. G. Krapp, The Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records. A Collective Edition. 6 vols: vol. 1. New York, 1931. 90-107.
- tr. Damian Love, "The Old English Exodus. A Verse Translation." Neophilologus 86 (2002): 621-39.
- tr. S.A.J. Bradley, Anglo-Saxon Poetry. London, 1982.
- Anlezark, Daniel. "Connecting the Patriarchs: Noah and Abraham in the Old English Exodus." Journal of English and Germanic PhilologyJournal of English and Germanic PhilologyThe Journal of English and Germanic Philology is an academic journal of medieval studies founded in 1897 and now published by University of Illinois Press. Its focus is on the cultures of English, Germanic, and Celtic-speaking parts of medieval northern Europe. Previous editors include Albert S....
104.2 (April 2005): 171-88. - Cross, J.E. and Susie Tucker. "Allegorical Tradition and the OE Exodus." NeophilologusNeophilologusNeophilologus, in full Neophilologus: an international journal of modern and mediaeval language and literature, is a peer-reviewed journal devoted to the study of modern and mediaeval languages and literature, including general linguistics, literary theory and comparative literature...
44 (1960): 122-7. - Earl, J.W. "Christian Traditions and the Old English Exodus." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 71 (1970): 541–70. Reprinted in The Poems of MS Junius 11: Basic Readings, ed. R.M. Liuzza. London: Routledge, 2002. 137–72.
- Lucas, Peter J. "The Cloud in the Interpretation of the OE Exodus." English Studies 51 (1970): 297-311.
External links
- Edition of the poem, Old English at the University of Virginia.
- Edition of the poem, The Labyrinth: Resources for Medieval Studies, Georgetown University.
- Bodleian Library