De finibus bonorum et malorum
Encyclopedia
De finibus bonorum et malorum (On the Ends of Good and Evil) is a philosophical work by the Roman
orator, politician and philosopher Marcus Tullius Cicero. It consists of five books, in which Cicero explains the philosophical views of Epicureanism
, Stoicism
, and the Platonism
of Antiochus of Ascalon
. The book was developed in the summer of the year 45 within about one and a half months. Together with the Tusculanae Quaestiones
written shortly afterwards, De finibus is the most extensive philosophical work of Cicero. It is dedicated to Marcus Junius Brutus
.
. This happens in form of a fictitious discussion between two friends of Brutus on Cicero's estate at Cumae
. In the first book the interlocutors present the theory of hedonism
, with which pleasure in form of the absence of pain is regarded as the highest good. In the second book Cicero criticizes this view, whereby he attacks the hedonistic definition of pleasure and argues that it cannot be equated with the highest good.
is discussed. In the third book Cicero's interlocutor Marcus Porcius Cato
presents Stoic theory, whereby he introduces in Latin the technical terms used by the Stoics. The highest and only good of the Stoics is presented as a moral good. In his counterattack in the fourth book Cicero doubts the derivation of the Stoic view as a supposed natural state as well and the exclusion of other goods by these teachings.
as taught by Antiochus of Ascalon
. This sees a perfectly happy life, in which both virtue, and physical, external goods are contained in the highest good. At the end of the book however the logical inconsistency of this teaching is criticized, so that there is no conclusion as to which is the best school.
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
orator, politician and philosopher Marcus Tullius Cicero. It consists of five books, in which Cicero explains the philosophical views of Epicureanism
Epicureanism
Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based upon the teachings of Epicurus, founded around 307 BC. Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him to a general attack on superstition and divine intervention. Following Aristippus—about whom...
, Stoicism
Stoicism
Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early . The Stoics taught that destructive emotions resulted from errors in judgment, and that a sage, or person of "moral and intellectual perfection," would not suffer such emotions.Stoics were concerned...
, and the Platonism
Platonism
Platonism is the philosophy of Plato or the name of other philosophical systems considered closely derived from it. In a narrower sense the term might indicate the doctrine of Platonic realism...
of Antiochus of Ascalon
Antiochus of Ascalon
Antiochus , of Ascalon, , was an Academic philosopher. He was a pupil of Philo of Larissa at the Academy, but he diverged from the Academic skepticism of Philo and his predecessors...
. The book was developed in the summer of the year 45 within about one and a half months. Together with the Tusculanae Quaestiones
Tusculanae Quaestiones
The Tusculanae Disputationes , is a series of books written by Cicero, around 45 BC, attempting to popularise Stoic philosophy in Ancient Rome...
written shortly afterwards, De finibus is the most extensive philosophical work of Cicero. It is dedicated to Marcus Junius Brutus
Marcus Junius Brutus
Marcus Junius Brutus , often referred to as Brutus, was a politician of the late Roman Republic. After being adopted by his uncle he used the name Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus, but eventually returned to using his original name...
.
First and second book (Liber Primus and Liber Secundus)
In the first two books Cicero argues against EpicureanismEpicureanism
Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based upon the teachings of Epicurus, founded around 307 BC. Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him to a general attack on superstition and divine intervention. Following Aristippus—about whom...
. This happens in form of a fictitious discussion between two friends of Brutus on Cicero's estate at Cumae
Cumae
Cumae is an ancient Greek settlement lying to the northwest of Naples in the Italian region of Campania. Cumae was the first Greek colony on the mainland of Italy , and the seat of the Cumaean Sibyl...
. In the first book the interlocutors present the theory of hedonism
Hedonism
Hedonism is a school of thought which argues that pleasure is the only intrinsic good. In very simple terms, a hedonist strives to maximize net pleasure .-Etymology:The name derives from the Greek word for "delight" ....
, with which pleasure in form of the absence of pain is regarded as the highest good. In the second book Cicero criticizes this view, whereby he attacks the hedonistic definition of pleasure and argues that it cannot be equated with the highest good.
Third and fourth book (Liber Tertius and Liber Quartus)
In the next two books the Stoic schoolStoicism
Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early . The Stoics taught that destructive emotions resulted from errors in judgment, and that a sage, or person of "moral and intellectual perfection," would not suffer such emotions.Stoics were concerned...
is discussed. In the third book Cicero's interlocutor Marcus Porcius Cato
Cato the Younger
Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis , commonly known as Cato the Younger to distinguish him from his great-grandfather , was a politician and statesman in the late Roman Republic, and a follower of the Stoic philosophy...
presents Stoic theory, whereby he introduces in Latin the technical terms used by the Stoics. The highest and only good of the Stoics is presented as a moral good. In his counterattack in the fourth book Cicero doubts the derivation of the Stoic view as a supposed natural state as well and the exclusion of other goods by these teachings.
Fifth book (Liber Quintus)
In the last book Cicero presents in the form of a dialogue between him and several friends the theory of the AcademicsPlatonism
Platonism is the philosophy of Plato or the name of other philosophical systems considered closely derived from it. In a narrower sense the term might indicate the doctrine of Platonic realism...
as taught by Antiochus of Ascalon
Antiochus of Ascalon
Antiochus , of Ascalon, , was an Academic philosopher. He was a pupil of Philo of Larissa at the Academy, but he diverged from the Academic skepticism of Philo and his predecessors...
. This sees a perfectly happy life, in which both virtue, and physical, external goods are contained in the highest good. At the end of the book however the logical inconsistency of this teaching is criticized, so that there is no conclusion as to which is the best school.
Quotes
- The beginnings of all things are small. (V, 58)
- It is sufficient proof that Nature shrinks from destruction. (Nature abhors a vacuum.) (V, 31)
See also
- Lorem ipsumLorem ipsumIn publishing and graphic design, lorem ipsum[p] is placeholder text commonly used to demonstrate the graphics elements of a document or visual presentation, such as font, typography, and layout...
, the common placeholder text used in graphic designGraphic designGraphic design is a creative process – most often involving a client and a designer and usually completed in conjunction with producers of form – undertaken in order to convey a specific message to a targeted audience...
work, is derived from parts of the first book's discourse on hedonism.