Contrary (social role)
Encyclopedia
A Contrary was a member of a Native North American tribal group who adopted behavior that was deliberately the opposite of other tribal members. The Contraries were found among the historical Amerindian tribes of the Great Plains
. They were a small number of individuals loosely organized into a cult that was devoted to the practice of contrary behavior.
The Contraries are related, in part, to the clown organizations of the Plains Indians
, as well as to Plains military societies that contained reverse warriors. The Lakota word heyoka
, which translates as clown or opposites, serves as a collective title for these institutionalized forms of contrary behavior of the Plains Indians. When Lakota Indians first saw European clowns, they identified them with their own term for clowns, heyoka.
around 1898. Written accounts of the heyoka (i.e., the Contraries and clowns of the Lakota and Santee) were published even earlier. The cultural anthropologist Julian Steward
described various forms of contrary behavior in his 1930 article The Ceremonial Buffoon of the American Indian. In 1945, Verne Ray examined contrary behavior in the ritual dances and ceremonies of North American Indians and differentiated a further characteristic of the contrary complex of the Plains Indians, reverse reaction, which means to do the opposite of what one is asked.
examined the ethnological phenomena of contrary behavior, particularly in the tribes of the North American Plains Indians.
The Contraries of the Plains Indians were individuals committed to an extraordinary life-style in which they consistently and continually did the opposite of what others normally do. They thus turned all social conventions into their opposites. On a certain level, the Contrary acted as an antagonist to his own people.
Contrary behavior means deliberately doing the opposite of what others routinely or conventionally do. It was usually accompanied by inverse speech, in which one says the opposite of what one actually means. For example, “no!” expresses “yes!” And “hello” means “goodbye”. To say “Grandfather, go away!” would be an invitation for him to come.
Great Plains
The Great Plains are a broad expanse of flat land, much of it covered in prairie, steppe and grassland, which lies west of the Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains in the United States and Canada. This area covers parts of the U.S...
. They were a small number of individuals loosely organized into a cult that was devoted to the practice of contrary behavior.
The Contraries are related, in part, to the clown organizations of the Plains Indians
Plains Indians
The Plains Indians are the Indigenous peoples who live on the plains and rolling hills of the Great Plains of North America. Their colorful equestrian culture and resistance to White domination have made the Plains Indians an archetype in literature and art for American Indians everywhere.Plains...
, as well as to Plains military societies that contained reverse warriors. The Lakota word heyoka
Heyoka
The word Heyókȟa refers to the Lakota concept of a contrarian, jester, satirist or sacred clown.Heyókȟa are thought of as being backwards-forwards, upside-down, or contrary in nature. This spirit is often manifest by doing things backwards or unconventionally—riding a horse backwards, wearing...
, which translates as clown or opposites, serves as a collective title for these institutionalized forms of contrary behavior of the Plains Indians. When Lakota Indians first saw European clowns, they identified them with their own term for clowns, heyoka.
History of Concept
George B. Grinnell introduced the designation Contraries based on his visits to the CheyenneCheyenne
Cheyenne are a Native American people of the Great Plains, who are of the Algonquian language family. The Cheyenne Nation is composed of two united tribes, the Só'taeo'o and the Tsétsêhéstâhese .The Cheyenne are thought to have branched off other tribes of Algonquian stock inhabiting lands...
around 1898. Written accounts of the heyoka (i.e., the Contraries and clowns of the Lakota and Santee) were published even earlier. The cultural anthropologist Julian Steward
Julian Steward
Julian Haynes Steward was an American anthropologist best known for his role in developing "the concept and method" of cultural ecology, as well as a scientific theory of culture change.-Early life and education:...
described various forms of contrary behavior in his 1930 article The Ceremonial Buffoon of the American Indian. In 1945, Verne Ray examined contrary behavior in the ritual dances and ceremonies of North American Indians and differentiated a further characteristic of the contrary complex of the Plains Indians, reverse reaction, which means to do the opposite of what one is asked.
Social Role
The social role of the Plains Indian clowns was ceremonial since they performed primarily during rituals, dances and feasts. Unlike the clowns, the special role of the Contraries was not restricted to brief performances, rituals or the warpath. It was their everyday life. The Contraries of the Plains Indians were unique and historically unprecedented. John PlantJohn Plant (Ethnologist)
John Plant is an American ethnologist, biologist and expert on the culture of the Plains Indians.- Academic career :...
examined the ethnological phenomena of contrary behavior, particularly in the tribes of the North American Plains Indians.
The Contraries of the Plains Indians were individuals committed to an extraordinary life-style in which they consistently and continually did the opposite of what others normally do. They thus turned all social conventions into their opposites. On a certain level, the Contrary acted as an antagonist to his own people.
Contrary behavior means deliberately doing the opposite of what others routinely or conventionally do. It was usually accompanied by inverse speech, in which one says the opposite of what one actually means. For example, “no!” expresses “yes!” And “hello” means “goodbye”. To say “Grandfather, go away!” would be an invitation for him to come.
Reverse Warriors
In addition to the Contraries and the ceremonial clowns, many Plains tribes recognized certain persons having the role of “reverse” warriors. These were usually experienced warriors who in battle purposely abided by contrary, foolish or crazy principles. Generally, they belonged to military organizations that also took part in dance ceremonies. Only the “reverse” warriors used inverse speech, and only they did the opposite of what they were commanded or instructed to do (reverse reaction). The “reverse” warrior charged into battle when ordered to retreat. He could only fall back, when he was commanded to attack.Literature
- John Plant: Heyoka: Die Contraries und Clowns der Plainsindianer. Verlag für Amerikanistik, Wyk auf Foehr 1994
- Verne Ray: The Contrary Behavior Pattern in American Indian Ceremonialism. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, Nr. 1/1945 S. 75-113.
- Julian Steward: The Ceremonial Buffoon of the American Indian. Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts and Letters, Nr. 14/1930 S. 187-207.