Coding (social sciences)
Encyclopedia
Coding refers to an analytical process in which data, in both quantitative
form (such as questionnaire
s results) or qualitative
(such as interview
transcript
s) are categorised to facilitate analysis.
Coding means the transformation of data
into a form understandable by computer software. The classification of information
is an important step in preparation of data
for computer
processing with statistical software.
One code should apply to only one category and categories should be comprehensive. There should be clear guidelines for coders (individual who do the coding) so that code is consistent.
Some studies will employ multiple coders working independently on the same date. This minimizes the chance of errors from coding and increases the reliability
of data.
.
Questionnaire data can be pre-coded (process of assigning codes to expected answers on designed questionnaire), field-coded (process of assigning codes as soon as the date flows, usually during fieldwork, post-coded (coding of open questions on completed questionnaires) or office-coded (done after fieldwork). Note that some of the above are not mutually exclusive.
In social sciences, spreadsheets such as Excel
and more advanced packages such as PSPP
/SPSS
, DAP
/SAS
and MiniTab
are often used.
format is preferential, including ethnography
, humanistic geography or phenomenological psychology a varied approach to coding can be applied. Iain Hey (2005) outlines a two step process beginning with basic coding in order to distinguish overall themes, followed by a more in depth, interpretive code in which more specific trends and patterns can be interpreted.
The process can be done manually- which can be as simple as highlighting different concepts with different colours, or fed into a software package. Qualitative software packages include for example Atlas.ti
, NUDIST and NVivo
.
package within R (programming language)
is a potential resource. Operating its own Graphical User Interface
(GUI) in a separate window from R, RQDA can be used to perform character level coding. Through traditional R commands, some of this data can be analyzed using quantitative tools.
Quantitative research
In the social sciences, quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of social phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to...
form (such as questionnaire
Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case...
s results) or qualitative
Qualitative research
Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in many different academic disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences, but also in market research and further contexts. Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such...
(such as interview
Interview
An interview is a conversation between two people where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information from the interviewee.- Interview as a Method for Qualitative Research:"Definition" -...
transcript
Transcript
Transcript may refer to:* Transcript , a copy of a student's permanent academic record* Transcription , the process of creating an equivalent RNA copy of a sequence of DNA* Transcript , a record of all court proceedings...
s) are categorised to facilitate analysis.
Coding means the transformation of data
Data transformation
In metadata and data warehouse, a data transformation converts data from a source data format into destination data.Data transformation can be divided into two steps:...
into a form understandable by computer software. The classification of information
Information
Information in its most restricted technical sense is a message or collection of messages that consists of an ordered sequence of symbols, or it is the meaning that can be interpreted from such a message or collection of messages. Information can be recorded or transmitted. It can be recorded as...
is an important step in preparation of data
Data
The term data refers to qualitative or quantitative attributes of a variable or set of variables. Data are typically the results of measurements and can be the basis of graphs, images, or observations of a set of variables. Data are often viewed as the lowest level of abstraction from which...
for computer
Computer
A computer is a programmable machine designed to sequentially and automatically carry out a sequence of arithmetic or logical operations. The particular sequence of operations can be changed readily, allowing the computer to solve more than one kind of problem...
processing with statistical software.
One code should apply to only one category and categories should be comprehensive. There should be clear guidelines for coders (individual who do the coding) so that code is consistent.
Some studies will employ multiple coders working independently on the same date. This minimizes the chance of errors from coding and increases the reliability
Reliability
In general, reliability is the ability of a person or system to perform and maintain its functions in routine circumstances, as well as hostile or unexpected circumstances.Reliability may refer to:...
of data.
Quantitative approach
For quantitative analysis, data is coded usually into measured and recorded as nominal or ordinal variablesVariable (programming)
In computer programming, a variable is a symbolic name given to some known or unknown quantity or information, for the purpose of allowing the name to be used independently of the information it represents...
.
Questionnaire data can be pre-coded (process of assigning codes to expected answers on designed questionnaire), field-coded (process of assigning codes as soon as the date flows, usually during fieldwork, post-coded (coding of open questions on completed questionnaires) or office-coded (done after fieldwork). Note that some of the above are not mutually exclusive.
In social sciences, spreadsheets such as Excel
Microsoft Excel
Microsoft Excel is a proprietary commercial spreadsheet application written and distributed by Microsoft for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. It features calculation, graphing tools, pivot tables, and a macro programming language called Visual Basic for Applications...
and more advanced packages such as PSPP
PSPP
PSPP is a free software application for analysis of sampled data. It has a graphical user interface and conventional command line interface. It is written in C, uses GNU Scientific Library for its mathematical routines, and plotutils for generating graphs....
/SPSS
SPSS
SPSS is a computer program used for survey authoring and deployment , data mining , text analytics, statistical analysis, and collaboration and deployment ....
, DAP
DAP (software)
Dap is a statistics and graphics program, that performs data management, analysis, and graphical visualization tasks which are commonly required in statistical consulting practice....
/SAS
SAS System
SAS is an integrated system of software products provided by SAS Institute Inc. that enables programmers to perform:* retrieval, management, and mining* report writing and graphics* statistical analysis...
and MiniTab
Minitab
Minitab is a statistics package. It was developed at the Pennsylvania State University by researchers Barbara F. Ryan, Thomas A. Ryan, Jr., and Brian L. Joiner in 1972...
are often used.
Qualitative approach
For disciplines in which a qualitativeQualitative research
Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in many different academic disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences, but also in market research and further contexts. Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such...
format is preferential, including ethnography
Ethnography
Ethnography is a qualitative method aimed to learn and understand cultural phenomena which reflect the knowledge and system of meanings guiding the life of a cultural group...
, humanistic geography or phenomenological psychology a varied approach to coding can be applied. Iain Hey (2005) outlines a two step process beginning with basic coding in order to distinguish overall themes, followed by a more in depth, interpretive code in which more specific trends and patterns can be interpreted.
The process can be done manually- which can be as simple as highlighting different concepts with different colours, or fed into a software package. Qualitative software packages include for example Atlas.ti
Atlas.ti
ATLAS.ti is a computer software program used mostly, but not exclusively, in qualitative research or qualitative data analysis.-Development history:...
, NUDIST and NVivo
NVivo
NVivo is a qualitative data analysis computer software package produced by QSR International. It has been designed for qualitative researchers working with very rich text-based and/or multimedia information, where deep levels of analysis on small or large volumes of data are required.NVivo is...
.
Mixed Methods
For those interested in mixed methods and both qualitative and quantitative analysis, the RQDARQDA
RQDA is an R package for computer assisted qualitative data analysis or CAQDAS. It is installable from, and runs within, the R system, but has a separate window running a graphical user interface ....
package within R (programming language)
R (programming language)
R is a programming language and software environment for statistical computing and graphics. The R language is widely used among statisticians for developing statistical software, and R is widely used for statistical software development and data analysis....
is a potential resource. Operating its own Graphical User Interface
Graphical user interface
In computing, a graphical user interface is a type of user interface that allows users to interact with electronic devices with images rather than text commands. GUIs can be used in computers, hand-held devices such as MP3 players, portable media players or gaming devices, household appliances and...
(GUI) in a separate window from R, RQDA can be used to perform character level coding. Through traditional R commands, some of this data can be analyzed using quantitative tools.