Classical Chinese grammar
Encyclopedia
Classical Chinese grammar is systematically complex, and greatly differs from the grammar
of modern vernacular Chinese.
Note that for the descriptions provided above, English equivalents are provided in double quotation marks
(""), while equivalents in vernacular Chinese are provided in hooked brackets (「」).
Chinese grammar
Standard Chinese shares a similar system of grammar with the many language varieties or dialects of the Chinese language, different from those employed by other language families, and comparable to the similar features found within the Slavic languages or Semitic languages...
of modern vernacular Chinese.
Function words
| |
Usage | Example | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 而 |
1. Used as a conjunction Grammatical conjunction In grammar, a conjunction is a part of speech that connects two words, sentences, phrases or clauses together. A discourse connective is a conjunction joining sentences. This definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech, so what constitutes a "conjunction" must be defined for each... , which is equivalent to "also" 「又」, "and" 「而且」, "but" 「卻」, "if" 「如果」, and "followed by" 「接著」 |
學而時習之，不亦說乎。 (From Analects by Confucius Confucius Confucius , literally "Master Kong", was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period.... and his disciples) |
Learn and practice often (what you have learned), is it not a pleasure? |
| 2. Used as a pronoun, which is equivalent to "your" 「你的 | |||
| 3. An alternative for "can" 「能」 |
| 何 |
1. Used as Pronouns, often behind the modal particles 「哉」、「也」 | |
|
| 2. Used as "Why" 「為什麼」, "where" 「哪裡」, "what" 「什麼」 | |||
| 3. Used as an adverb, or used in the first sentence before the verb, that question can be translated as "how" 「怎麼」 |
| 乎 |
1. Used as a Preposition, which is equivalent to the word 「於」 | |
|
| 2. The modal particle to express doubt, praise, surprise, or to highlight the word in front | |||
| 3. To express a question, when placed at the end of a phrase | 人不知而不慍，不亦君子乎。 | Others fail to understand you, but you are not angered, is this not the mark of a gentleman? |
| 乃 |
1. Used as a Preposition, which is equivalent to the word 「於」 | |
|
| 2. The modal particle to express doubt, praise, surprise, or to highlight the word in front | |||
| 3. To express a question, when placed at the end of a phrase | |
| 乎 |
1. As "then", "indeed", "after all", or "namely" | 乃懼，復造善脈者診之。(From Chapter 23 of Volume 2 of Pu Songling Pu Songling Pu Songling was a Qing Dynasty Chinese writer, best known as the author of Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio.-Biography:Pu was born into a poor landlord-merchant family from Zichuan... 's 聊齋志異) |
|
| 2. As a pronoun, "you", "your" |
| 爲 |
1. Used as a preposition, that the object, which is equivalent to "substitute for", "give", "once upon a time", "opposed", "with", "with regards to" | |
|
| 2. Used as a preposition, pointed out that the reason for the equivalent of "because" | |||
| 3. Used as a preposition, that the passive, which is equivalent to "be" | |||
| 4. Used as a verb, which is equivalent to "make", "for", "become" | |||
| 5. Used as a preposition, which is equivalent to "at", "When" | |||
| 6. Used as a modal particle, often with the pronouns 「何」、「焉」 |
| 焉 |
1. The word used as a tone for the end of the sentence, which is equivalent to 「啊」、「呢」 | 生而有疾惡焉，順是，故殘賊生而忠信亡焉。 |
|
| 2. For the tone of the words express a standstill for the sentence | |||
| 3. Used as a pronoun, which is equivalent to "he", "them", "it", "here" and "where" | |||
| 4. Used as pronouns, equivalent to 「豈」 (how/what), 「如何」 (what) |
| 以 |
1. Used as a preposition to indicate reason, equivalent to "because" and "owing to" | 故常無，欲以觀其妙。(Laozi Laozi Laozi was a mystic philosopher of ancient China, best known as the author of the Tao Te Ching . His association with the Tao Te Ching has led him to be traditionally considered the founder of Taoism... ) |
|
| 2. Used as a preposition to indicate means, equivalent to 「用」、「將」、「拿」 | |||
| 3. Used as a preposition to introduce action, where activity takes place within a certain period and location, equivalent to "at", "from" | |||
| 4. Used as a conjunction - to indicate juxtaposition Contrast (linguistics) In semantics, contrast is a relationship between two discourse segments. Contrast is often overtly marked by markers such as but or however, such as in the following examples:# It's raining, but I am not taking an umbrella.... , a linked relationship, objective, or causality. |
| 其 |
Used as a pronoun. Can be used as a third person pronoun ("him" 「他」, "his" 「他的」, "they" 「他們」, or "their" 「他們的」), objective pronoun ("it" 「它」, "its" 「它的」, "those" 「它們」, the possessive of "those" 「它們的」, or "one of" 「其中」) or demonstrative pronoun ("this" 「這」/「這個」, "these" 「這些」, "that" 「那」/「那個」, "those" 「那些」). Also can be used to distinguish tone, such as words like "approximately" 「大概」, "may" 「也許」, "I think" 「恐怕」, "could" 「還能」, "how" 「怎麼」 or "could it be that" 「難道」. To indicate something in first person, 「己」 is used, for example, 「己身也」. | |
| 且 |
"And", "Furthermore" | |
|
| 若 | "If", "Assuming that" | 夕惕若厲。 | In the evening |
| 所 | "That which" | ||
| 也 | Used at the end of the sentence to provide a positive, emphasizing or doubtful tone. If used within the sentence, indicates a pause to delay the mood. | 其西有大山，天下至高者也。 | In the west there is a large mountain, the tallest under heaven (on Earth). |
| 因 | "Because" | ||
| 于 | Used as a preposition for place, reason; expression of action behaviour and the introduction of premises, time, motion, target, location, relationship between people, introduction to the object of comparison or analogy. | ||
| 與 | "and", "with", "to", "for", "give" | ||
| 則 | Used as a conjunction - translated as "just", "still, but...", "however", "in that case" | ||
| 者 | Particle which refers to people, objects, times, locations, etc. When placed after the subject, indicates a slight pause, or expresses determination. | ||
| 之 | Possessive marker ('s) for personal pronouns | ||
| 曰 | Speech indicator, similar to "says" or "said". | 翁笑曰：「平昔不相往還，何由遺魂吾家？」 | |
| 亦 | Also; too. | ||
| 故 | Therefore, Cause, Reason, Happening, Instance | 何以故？ | Why is this? |
Note that for the descriptions provided above, English equivalents are provided in double quotation marks
Quotation mark
Quotation marks or inverted commas are punctuation marks at the beginning and end of a quotation, direct speech, literal title or name. Quotation marks can also be used to indicate a different meaning of a word or phrase than the one typically associated with it and are often used to express irony...
(""), while equivalents in vernacular Chinese are provided in hooked brackets (「」).
See also
- Chinese adjectivesChinese adjectivesChinese adjectives differ from those in English in that they can be used as verbs and thus linguists sometimes prefer to use the terms static or stative verb to describe them.-Before nouns:...
- Chinese grammarChinese grammarStandard Chinese shares a similar system of grammar with the many language varieties or dialects of the Chinese language, different from those employed by other language families, and comparable to the similar features found within the Slavic languages or Semitic languages...
- Chinese particlesChinese particlesIn classical Chinese philology, words are divided into two classes: the shízì and the xūzì . The former include what modern linguists call verbs, nouns, and adjectives, while the latter includes what modern linguists call particles. Opinions differ as to which category pronouns and adverbs belong to...
- Chinese pronounsChinese pronounsChinese pronouns differ somewhat from their English counterparts. For instance, there is no differentiation between "he", "she" and "it", though a written difference was introduced after contact with the West, and with the exception of the reflexive self, pronouns remain the same whether they are...
- Chinese verbsChinese verbsThere are two different forms of verbs in the Chinese language: the stative, indicating state, and the dynamic, indicating action. The sentence changes with the different forms of verbs.-Verb construction:...
- Classical ChineseClassical ChineseClassical Chinese or Literary Chinese is a traditional style of written Chinese based on the grammar and vocabulary of ancient Chinese, making it different from any modern spoken form of Chinese...
- Vernacular ChineseVernacular ChineseWritten Vernacular Chinese refers to forms of written Chinese based on the vernacular language, in contrast to Classical Chinese, the written standard used from the Spring and Autumn Period to the early twentieth century...