Canadian raising
Encyclopedia
Canadian raising is a phonetic phenomenon that occurs in varieties of the English language
, especially Canadian English
, in which certain diphthong
s are "raised" before voiceless
consonant
s (e.g., /p/, /t/, /k/, /s/, /f/). aɪ (the vowel of "eye") becomes [ʌɪ] or [ɐɪ], while the outcome of aʊ (the vowel of "loud") varies by dialect, with [ʌu] more common in the west
and a fronted variant [ɛʉ] commonly heard in Central Canada
. In any case, the /a/-component of the diphthong
changes from a low vowel to a mid-low vowel ([ʌ], [ɐ] or [ɛ]).
(including in the traditional accent of Martha's Vineyard
), and also occurs in parts of the upper Midwest. Southern Atlantic varieties of English and the accents of the Fens
in England feature it as well. While "true Canadian raising" affects both the /aʊ/ and /aɪ/ diphthongs, a related phenomenon with a much wider distribution throughout the United States that affects only the /aɪ/ diphthong also exists. So, whereas the pronunciations of "rider" and "writer" are identical [ˈɹaɪɾɚ] for some Americans, those whose dialects include raising will pronounce them [ˈɹaɪɾɚ] and [ˈɹʌɪɾɚ], respectively (whereas in Received Pronunciation, these words would be pronounced [ˈɹaɪdə] and [ˈɹaɪtə], respectively). The American raising of /aɪ/ can be found in the northern United States, the Mid-Atlantic Dialect region
, California
, and probably in many other parts of the country, as it appears to be spreading. There are also Canadians who raise /aɪ/ and not /aʊ/ or vice versa. This phenomenon preserves the recoverability of the phoneme
/t/ in "writer" despite the North American English process of flapping, which merges /t/ and /d/ into [ɾ] before unstressed vowels.
, it seems), the raising may be optional for some speakers. There are many other dialect-specific complexities: For example, even the speakers just described, for whom "rider" and "spider" do not rhyme, may differ on whether raising applies in "hydrogen", although unquestionably it does apply to "nitrogen".
and Scottish English
. The Scottish Vowel Length Rule
lengthens
a wide variety of vowel sounds in several environments, and shortens them in others; "long" environments include when the vowel precedes a number of voiced consonant sounds. This rule also conditions /aɪ/ in the long environments and /əɪ/ in the short environments. Significantly, though, the Scots Vowel Length Rule applies only before voiced fricatives and /r/, whereas Canadian raising is not limited in this fashion; thus, it may represent a sort of merging of the Scots Vowel Length Rule with the general English rule lengthening vowels before voiced consonants of any sort.
The most common understanding of the Great Vowel Shift
is that the Middle English
vowels [iː, uː] passed through a stage [əɪ, əʊ] on the way to their modern pronunciations [aɪ, aʊ]. Thus it is difficult to say whether Canadian raising reflects an innovation or the preservation of an older vowel quality in a restricted environment.
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
, especially Canadian English
Canadian English
Canadian English is the variety of English spoken in Canada. English is the first language, or "mother tongue", of approximately 24 million Canadians , and more than 28 million are fluent in the language...
, in which certain diphthong
Diphthong
A diphthong , also known as a gliding vowel, refers to two adjacent vowel sounds occurring within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: That is, the tongue moves during the pronunciation of the vowel...
s are "raised" before voiceless
Phonation
Phonation has slightly different meanings depending on the subfield of phonetics. Among some phoneticians, phonation is the process by which the vocal folds produce certain sounds through quasi-periodic vibration. This is the definition used among those who study laryngeal anatomy and physiology...
consonant
Consonant
In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are , pronounced with the lips; , pronounced with the front of the tongue; , pronounced with the back of the tongue; , pronounced in the throat; and ,...
s (e.g., /p/, /t/, /k/, /s/, /f/). aɪ (the vowel of "eye") becomes [ʌɪ] or [ɐɪ], while the outcome of aʊ (the vowel of "loud") varies by dialect, with [ʌu] more common in the west
Western Canada
Western Canada, also referred to as the Western provinces and commonly as the West, is a region of Canada that includes the four provinces west of the province of Ontario.- Provinces :...
and a fronted variant [ɛʉ] commonly heard in Central Canada
Central Canada
Central Canada is a region consisting of Canada's two largest and most populous provinces: Ontario and Quebec. Due to their high populations, Ontario and Quebec have traditionally held a significant amount of political power in Canada, leading to some amount of resentment from other regions of the...
. In any case, the /a/-component of the diphthong
Diphthong
A diphthong , also known as a gliding vowel, refers to two adjacent vowel sounds occurring within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: That is, the tongue moves during the pronunciation of the vowel...
changes from a low vowel to a mid-low vowel ([ʌ], [ɐ] or [ɛ]).
Aboot
A stereotype purports that Canadians pronounce the word "about" as "aboot". In actuality, Canadian inflection on the vowel sound 'ou' and stress toward to latter half of the syllable results in pronunciation much more similar to "a-boat," because /oʊ/ is frequently realized as [ʌʊ] or [ʌ̈ʊ] in American English, while it remains [oʊ] for Canadians. This /a/-component of the diphthong is sometimes not heard by speakers of English with American accents, as they are often not able to detect this inflection-- resulting in the "aboot" fallacy.Geographic distribution
Despite its name, the phenomenon is not restricted to Canada. It is quite common in New EnglandNew England
New England is a region in the northeastern corner of the United States consisting of the six states of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut...
(including in the traditional accent of Martha's Vineyard
Martha's Vineyard
Martha's Vineyard is an island located south of Cape Cod in Massachusetts, known for being an affluent summer colony....
), and also occurs in parts of the upper Midwest. Southern Atlantic varieties of English and the accents of the Fens
The Fens
The Fens, also known as the , are a naturally marshy region in eastern England. Most of the fens were drained several centuries ago, resulting in a flat, damp, low-lying agricultural region....
in England feature it as well. While "true Canadian raising" affects both the /aʊ/ and /aɪ/ diphthongs, a related phenomenon with a much wider distribution throughout the United States that affects only the /aɪ/ diphthong also exists. So, whereas the pronunciations of "rider" and "writer" are identical [ˈɹaɪɾɚ] for some Americans, those whose dialects include raising will pronounce them [ˈɹaɪɾɚ] and [ˈɹʌɪɾɚ], respectively (whereas in Received Pronunciation, these words would be pronounced [ˈɹaɪdə] and [ˈɹaɪtə], respectively). The American raising of /aɪ/ can be found in the northern United States, the Mid-Atlantic Dialect region
Philadelphia dialect
The Philadelphia dialect is the dialect of English spoken in Philadelphia; and extending into Philadelphia's suburbs in the Delaware Valley and southern New Jersey. It is one of the best-studied dialects of American English since Philadelphia's University of Pennsylvania is the home institution of...
, California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
, and probably in many other parts of the country, as it appears to be spreading. There are also Canadians who raise /aɪ/ and not /aʊ/ or vice versa. This phenomenon preserves the recoverability of the phoneme
Phoneme
In a language or dialect, a phoneme is the smallest segmental unit of sound employed to form meaningful contrasts between utterances....
/t/ in "writer" despite the North American English process of flapping, which merges /t/ and /d/ into [ɾ] before unstressed vowels.
Varieties
For many speakers, Canadian raising is not stopped just by any voiced consonants; rather, only voiced consonants that come right before a morpheme boundary stop it. So, the voiced /d/ in "rider" stops the raising, because it is morpheme-final, while the /d/ in "spider" does not, and for these speakers "rider" does not rhyme with "spoider". Similarly, "pilot" gets raised because 'l' is non-final, but the 'l' in "pile it" stops the raising -- although in such circumstances (before resonant consonantsSonorant
In phonetics and phonology, a sonorant is a speech sound that is produced without turbulent airflow in the vocal tract; fricatives and plosives are not sonorants. Vowels are sonorants, as are consonants like and . Other consonants, like or , restrict the airflow enough to cause turbulence, and...
, it seems), the raising may be optional for some speakers. There are many other dialect-specific complexities: For example, even the speakers just described, for whom "rider" and "spider" do not rhyme, may differ on whether raising applies in "hydrogen", although unquestionably it does apply to "nitrogen".
Possible origins
Some have hypothesized that Canadian raising may be related historically to a similar phenomenon that exists in ScotsScots language
Scots is the Germanic language variety spoken in Lowland Scotland and parts of Ulster . It is sometimes called Lowland Scots to distinguish it from Scottish Gaelic, the Celtic language variety spoken in most of the western Highlands and in the Hebrides.Since there are no universally accepted...
and Scottish English
Scottish English
Scottish English refers to the varieties of English spoken in Scotland. It may or may not be considered distinct from the Scots language. It is always considered distinct from Scottish Gaelic, a Celtic language....
. The Scottish Vowel Length Rule
Scottish Vowel Length Rule
The Scottish vowel length rule, also known as Aitken's law after Professor A.J. Aitken, who formulated it, describes how vowel length in Scots, Scottish English, and to some extent Mid Ulster English, is conditioned by environment.- Phonemes :...
lengthens
Vowel length
In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. Often the chroneme, or the "longness", acts like a consonant, and may etymologically be one, such as in Australian English. While not distinctive in most dialects of English, vowel length is an important phonemic factor in...
a wide variety of vowel sounds in several environments, and shortens them in others; "long" environments include when the vowel precedes a number of voiced consonant sounds. This rule also conditions /aɪ/ in the long environments and /əɪ/ in the short environments. Significantly, though, the Scots Vowel Length Rule applies only before voiced fricatives and /r/, whereas Canadian raising is not limited in this fashion; thus, it may represent a sort of merging of the Scots Vowel Length Rule with the general English rule lengthening vowels before voiced consonants of any sort.
The most common understanding of the Great Vowel Shift
Great Vowel Shift
The Great Vowel Shift was a major change in the pronunciation of the English language that took place in England between 1350 and 1500.The Great Vowel Shift was first studied by Otto Jespersen , a Danish linguist and Anglicist, who coined the term....
is that the Middle English
Middle English
Middle English is the stage in the history of the English language during the High and Late Middle Ages, or roughly during the four centuries between the late 11th and the late 15th century....
vowels [iː, uː] passed through a stage [əɪ, əʊ] on the way to their modern pronunciations [aɪ, aʊ]. Thus it is difficult to say whether Canadian raising reflects an innovation or the preservation of an older vowel quality in a restricted environment.
See also
- Canadian ShiftCanadian ShiftThe Canadian Shift is a linguistic vowel shift found in Canadian English. It was first described by Clarke, Elms and Youssef in 1995, based on impressionistic analysis....
- North American English regional phonology