Bernard Gert
Encyclopedia
Bernard Gert is a moral
philosopher known primarily for his work in normative ethics
, as well as in medical ethics
, especially pertaining to psychology. His work is notable for its emphasis on the greater importance to commonsense morality of avoiding causing evil
as opposed to promoting good. Although his moral system shares similarities to deontology, rule utilitarianism
, and contractarianism, Gert does not ally himself with any of those positions. He writes, "I think that my view is best characterized as a natural law
theory . . . in the tradition of Hobbes". He also writes, "my view has been characterized as Kant
with consequences, as Mill
with publicity, and as Ross with a theory."
Gert studied philosophy
at Cornell University
. He was a professor at Dartmouth College
for fifty years, from 1959-2009. He is presently the Stone Professor of Intellectual and Moral Philosophy, Emeritus at Dartmouth. He also has other adjunct and visiting appointments.
Gert is a fellow of the Hastings Center
, an independent bioethics research institution.
to emphasize the avoidance of evil.
plays. According to Gert, acting rationally does not require acting morally, in some cases. However, it does require that we avoid harming ourselves without an adequate reason. Therefore, a rational person would not cause his own pain unless it were for an adequate reason, for example, to cure a disease. Even a masochist causes pain for a reason, presumably for pleasure. This helps show that no rational being seeks to harm himself for its own sake.
There are approximately five sorts of irrational desire according to Gert: seeking death, pain, disability, loss of freedom, or loss of pleasure. We arrive at moral rules by extending these objects of irrational desire to others. Rationality, alone, does not require this. However, if we adopt the principle of impartiality, whereby we apply the rules without regard to who gains or loses, we extend these prohibitions to others. This results in rules such as do not kill, do not cause pain, do not disable, and so forth.
Gert says that these rules are not absolute and can be violated by following a two step procedure. The first step is to ascertain all morally relevant information about the scenario at hand in order to make a justified evaluation. The second step is to consider the ramifications of other people knowing that they can violate the moral rule in similar circumstances. An example of this would be if you were to consider violating rule #9 (breaking the law) in order to run a red light. You evaluate the scenario and notice that there are no cars around and running the red light will not cause any harm, however, you do not want other people to know that they can run red lights too, because that would lead to more car accidents, which is indirectly causing pain and death. Another example of violating the moral rules would be killing in self defense. If you evaluate the situation, you find that if you do not kill the other person, they will violate one of the moral rules and kill you. Also, it would be acceptable in this scenario for other people to know that killing in self-defense is allowable.
Ethics
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime, etc.Major branches of ethics include:...
philosopher known primarily for his work in normative ethics
Normative ethics
Normative ethics is the study of ethical action. It is the branch of philosophical ethics that investigates the set of questions that arise when considering how one ought to act, morally speaking...
, as well as in medical ethics
Medical ethics
Medical ethics is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology.-History:Historically,...
, especially pertaining to psychology. His work is notable for its emphasis on the greater importance to commonsense morality of avoiding causing evil
Evil
Evil is the violation of, or intent to violate, some moral code. Evil is usually seen as the dualistic opposite of good. Definitions of evil vary along with analysis of its root motive causes, however general actions commonly considered evil include: conscious and deliberate wrongdoing,...
as opposed to promoting good. Although his moral system shares similarities to deontology, rule utilitarianism
Rule Utilitarianism
Rule utilitarianism is a form of utilitarianism that says actions are moral when they conform to the rules that lead to the greatest good, or that "the rightness or wrongness of a particular action is a function of the correctness of the rule of which it is an instance." For rule utilitarians, the...
, and contractarianism, Gert does not ally himself with any of those positions. He writes, "I think that my view is best characterized as a natural law
Natural law
Natural law, or the law of nature , is any system of law which is purportedly determined by nature, and thus universal. Classically, natural law refers to the use of reason to analyze human nature and deduce binding rules of moral behavior. Natural law is contrasted with the positive law Natural...
theory . . . in the tradition of Hobbes". He also writes, "my view has been characterized as Kant
KANT
KANT is a computer algebra system for mathematicians interested in algebraic number theory, performing sophisticated computations in algebraic number fields, in global function fields, and in local fields. KASH is the associated command line interface...
with consequences, as Mill
John Stuart Mill
John Stuart Mill was a British philosopher, economist and civil servant. An influential contributor to social theory, political theory, and political economy, his conception of liberty justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state control. He was a proponent of...
with publicity, and as Ross with a theory."
Gert studied philosophy
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
at Cornell University
Cornell University
Cornell University is an Ivy League university located in Ithaca, New York, United States. It is a private land-grant university, receiving annual funding from the State of New York for certain educational missions...
. He was a professor at Dartmouth College
Dartmouth College
Dartmouth College is a private, Ivy League university in Hanover, New Hampshire, United States. The institution comprises a liberal arts college, Dartmouth Medical School, Thayer School of Engineering, and the Tuck School of Business, as well as 19 graduate programs in the arts and sciences...
for fifty years, from 1959-2009. He is presently the Stone Professor of Intellectual and Moral Philosophy, Emeritus at Dartmouth. He also has other adjunct and visiting appointments.
Gert is a fellow of the Hastings Center
Hastings Center
The Hastings Center, founded in 1969, is an independent, non-partisan, non-profit bioethics research institute based in the United States. It is dedicated to the examination of essential questions in health care, biotechnology, and the environment...
, an independent bioethics research institution.
The importance of evil
Gert believes evil is that which all rational creatures seek to avoid, namely, death and suffering. He maintains that the worst evils are far more important in terms of their effects than the greatest goods, and that it is therefore appropriate for moralityMorality
Morality is the differentiation among intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are good and bad . A moral code is a system of morality and a moral is any one practice or teaching within a moral code...
to emphasize the avoidance of evil.
Rationality and impartiality
To understand Gert's philosophy, it is important to understand the role rationalityRationality
In philosophy, rationality is the exercise of reason. It is the manner in which people derive conclusions when considering things deliberately. It also refers to the conformity of one's beliefs with one's reasons for belief, or with one's actions with one's reasons for action...
plays. According to Gert, acting rationally does not require acting morally, in some cases. However, it does require that we avoid harming ourselves without an adequate reason. Therefore, a rational person would not cause his own pain unless it were for an adequate reason, for example, to cure a disease. Even a masochist causes pain for a reason, presumably for pleasure. This helps show that no rational being seeks to harm himself for its own sake.
There are approximately five sorts of irrational desire according to Gert: seeking death, pain, disability, loss of freedom, or loss of pleasure. We arrive at moral rules by extending these objects of irrational desire to others. Rationality, alone, does not require this. However, if we adopt the principle of impartiality, whereby we apply the rules without regard to who gains or loses, we extend these prohibitions to others. This results in rules such as do not kill, do not cause pain, do not disable, and so forth.
Ten moral rules
In his book Common Morality: Deciding What to Do, Gert proposes ten moral rules which, if followed, create a moral system. The rules are as follows:- Do not kill
- Do not cause pain
- Do not disable
- Do not deprive of freedom
- Do not deprive of pleasure
- Do not deceive
- Keep your promises
- Do not cheat
- Obey the law
- Do your duty.
Gert says that these rules are not absolute and can be violated by following a two step procedure. The first step is to ascertain all morally relevant information about the scenario at hand in order to make a justified evaluation. The second step is to consider the ramifications of other people knowing that they can violate the moral rule in similar circumstances. An example of this would be if you were to consider violating rule #9 (breaking the law) in order to run a red light. You evaluate the scenario and notice that there are no cars around and running the red light will not cause any harm, however, you do not want other people to know that they can run red lights too, because that would lead to more car accidents, which is indirectly causing pain and death. Another example of violating the moral rules would be killing in self defense. If you evaluate the situation, you find that if you do not kill the other person, they will violate one of the moral rules and kill you. Also, it would be acceptable in this scenario for other people to know that killing in self-defense is allowable.
Sources
By Bernard Gert:- The Moral Rules: A New Rational Foundation for Morality, Harper and Row, 1970.
- Morality: A New Justification of the Moral Rules, Oxford University Press, 1988.
- Morality: Its Nature and Justification, Oxford University Press, 1998.
- Common Morality: Deciding What to Do, Oxford University Press, 2004.
- Morality: Its Nature and Justification, Revised Edition, Oxford University Press, 2005.
- Bioethics: A Systematic Approach, 2nd Edition, Oxford University Press, 2006
External links
- Gert's homepage at Dartmouth
- Gert, B. (1989). Morality versus Slogans Paper Presented to the Center for the Study of Ethics in Society, 3(2), Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan
- Gert, B. (2005). The Definition of Morality, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2005 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)