Battle of Selinus
Encyclopedia
The Battle of Selinus which took place in the spring of 409 BC, is the opening battle of the so called Second Sicilian War. The 10 day long siege and battle was fought in Sicily between the Carthaginian forces under Hannibal Mago (A king of Carthage of the Magonid family, not the famous Hannibal of the Barcid
family) and the Dorian Greeks of Selinus
. The city of Selinus had defeated the Elymian city of Segesta
in 415 BC, an event that led to the Athenian invasion of Sicily in 415 BC and ended in the defeat of Athenian forces in 413 BC. When Selinus again worsted Segesta in 411 BC, Carthage, responding to the appeal of Segesta, had besieged and sacked Selinus after the Carthaginian offer of negotiations had been refused by the Greeks. This was the first step towards Hannibal's campaign to avenge the Carthaginian defeat at the 1st battle of Himera in 480 BC. The city of Selinus was later rebuilt, but never regained her former status.
ns had started their colonisation of Sicily after 800 BC. The Phoenicians had initially planted trading posts all over the coast of Sicily, but never penetrated far inland and ultimately withdrew without resistance to the Western half of the island (concentrating in the cities of Motya
, Panormus and Soluntum) with the arrival of the Greek colonists after 750 BC. The Ionian Greeks took the lead in colinising Sicily among Greeks when they planted Naxos
in 735 BC, and spread north and west along the island coast until the city of Himera
was founded in c648 BC, bordering the Phoenician territory of Soluntum. The Dorian Greeks founded Syracuse in 734 BC, and spread south then west along the coastline until Selinus was founded around 654 BC, bordering the Phoenician territory of Motya. While the Ionian Greeks on the whole had friendly relations with the native Sicilians and the Phoenicians, the Dorian Greeks were comparably more aggressive, pushing inland at the expense of the natives to expand the Greek domain. Conflicts among the Greeks colonies and between the natives and Greeks erupted, but these were localised mostly affairs without any decisive results or intervention from non Sicilian powers. The Phoenicains and Carthaginians traded with everyone in Sicily and on the whole all the island colonies prospered. This prosperity caused some of the Greek cities to start to expand their territories again, ultimately leading to the events known as Sicilian Wars.
, Panormus and Solus into the Punic Hegemony led by Carthage, which had begun to resist Greek encroachment of Western Mediterranean after 600 BC. The growth of Selinus and Himera during the period Malchus was active in Sicily indicates that Carthaginians were not in conflict with the Sicilian Greeks at that time. However, Carthage countered the expedition of Spartan Dorieus in 510 BC and the Greeks were defeated near Eryx
, a clear indication that Carthage now held sway over the Phoenician interests in Sicily. A war followed this event, which eventually led to Carthage destroying the city of Heraclea Minoa
. The year this even took place is not known, but Carthage did not intervene in Sicily again until 480 BC after Heraclea had been destroyed. Carthage granted the Sicilian Phoenicians local autonomy, keeping control of their foreign policy, extracting some sort of tribute in exchange for military aid. The Elymians, dominated by Segesta, were given allied status, protecting them from further hostility of Selinus, which had also allied herself with Carthage because of the threat presented by the rise of Akragas.
, Cleander
and Gelo
, had been involved in the war that eventually destroyed Heraclea Minoa. An appeal for aid to avenge the death of Dorieus was ignored by mainland Greece, even by Leonidas of Sparta, the brother of Dorieus and who later would win immortal fame at a narrow pass called Gates of Fire in 480 BC. While Carthage was engaged in Sardinia, the Greek colonies in Sicily had fallen under the rule of tyrants. Some of these tyrants, notably those ruling Gela, Akragas and Rhegium, sought to expand their dominion at the expense of native Sicilians and other Greek cities during 505 -480 BC, with the Dorian city of Gela being the most successful. Tyrants like Cleander and Hippocrates
successfully took over Sicel and Ionian Greek territory, and by 490 BC, Zankle, Leontini, Catana and Naxos
had fallen under Gelan control. Syracuse had managed to survive the attampts of Hippocrates with help from Corinth
, but Gelo, successor of Hippocrates, captured Syracuse and made the city his capital. Akragas expanded her territory against the Sikans and Sicels, and under Theron
, allied with Gelo to forestall any future conflicts between the neighboring powers. The Ionian Greeks, having lost Naxos and Catana to Gelan aggression, responded by creating an alliance between tyrants of Himera
and Rhegion. Anaxilas
, tyrant of Rhegion, who had managed to detach Zankle from clutches of Syracuse by 485 BC, married the daughter of Terillus
, tyrant of Himera. Both Himera and Rhegion also made treaties with Carthage. Terillus went further, becoming guest friend of Hamicar Mago, "king" of Carthage.
Thus three powers were delicately balanced in Sicily by 483 BC. Carthage kept the peace between Elymians and Selinus, while the Ionian Greeks in the north (led by Himera and Rhegion) faced the Dorians Greeks from the South, led by Syracuse and Akragas. This situation changed when Theron, with support from citizens of Himera, deposed Terillus and took over that city in 483 BC. Carthage intervened at the instigation of Anaxilus, and the Sicilian Greeks under the tyrants Gelo
and Theron
crushed the Punic expedition of 480 BC in the 1st battle of Himera
. The Carthaginian domain in Western Sicily was untouched by this defeat. Carthage had refrained from intervening in Sicilian affairs for 70 years, while expanding her hegemony in Africa, Sardinia and Spain.
This defeat of an external power brought prosperity but not peace for Sicilians, Greeks and non Greeks alike. The political landscape in Sicily during those years changed as some of the Greek tyrants were replaced by democracy and oligarchy, the influence of Syracuse shrunk in Sicily and infighting between the Greek cities flared up. Athens
had sent fleets to Sicily in 427, 425 and 424 BC to intervene in these conflicts, which ultimately caused Hermocrates
of Syracuse to request all Sicilian Greek cities to remain at peace at the congress of Gela in 424 BC. Peace between Greeks and the natives of Sicily was not part of this agreement. Ironically, the defeated Carthaginians and their allies, the Elymians seem to have enjoyed comparably more peaceful existence after the battle of Himera until 415 BC.
and Massaliot markets.
Selinus resumed hostilities in 410 BC, again reoccupying the disputed lands across the Mazaras river. Segesta, fearing that any resistance would bring Syracuse into the fray against them, remained passive, but the Greeks continued to raid Segestan domain. Segesta now sent an embassy to Carthage begging protection.
Hannibal next sent Carthaginian and Segestan envoys to Syracuse, with a proposition that they mediate the dispute between Selinus and Segesta – calculating that Selinus would refuse arbitration and then Syracuse would decline to become further involved. When a Selinute embassy told the Syracusans they need to mediate the matter, Syracusans replied that they would neither break their alliance with Selinus or break the peace with Carthage. Carthage thus had a free hand to deal with Selinus, without the fear of outright interference from Syracuse. Carthaginian diplomacy had managed to isolate Selinus for the time being.
The Libyans supplied both heavy and light infantry and formed the most disciplined units of the army. The heavy infantry fought in close formation, armed with long spears and round shields, wearing helmets and linen cuirasses. The light Libyan infantry carried javelins and a small shield, same as the Iberian light infantry. Iberian soldiers wore purple bordered white tunics and leather headgear. Iberian Heavy infantry fought in a dense phalanx, armed with heavy throwing spears, long body shields and short thrusting swords. Campanian, Sardinian and Gallic infantry fought in their native gear, but often were equipped by Carthage.
The Libyans, Carthaginian citizens and the Libyo-Phoenicians provided disciplined, well trained cavalry equipped with thrusting spears and round shields. Numidia contributed superb light cavalry armed with bundles of javelins and riding without bridle or saddle. Iberians and Gauls also provided cavalry, which relied on the all out charge. Allied cities of the Punic hegemony contributed contingents for the army as well. Carthaginian officer corps held overall command of the army, although many units may have fought under their chieftains. Greeks hired from Sicily and Italy fought as hoplites.
The soldiers of Selinus were Hoplites, and the city also had a considerable number of cavalry available for its defence. Little is known about the state of Selinute warships or their disposition at this time. Selinus had fought most of its war away from the city after 480 BC so it is understandable that the walls of Selinus is said to have fallen in ill repair. During the siege, all citizens, including women and old men would be mobilized, and most will serve as improvised missile troops. By pelting the attacking enemy with tiles, brick and other objects, these impromptu peltast
s could take a heavy toll during urban fighting (the most famous casualty of such amateur troops was the great Pyrrhus
, brought down by a woman bashing his head with a tile).
s the soldiers, supplies and siege equipments were ferried from Africa to Motya in Sicily by 1,500 transports in the spring of 409 BC. Levies from the Sicilian Punic cities and Segesta joined the force at Motya. Hannibal allowed 1 day rest for his soldiers before setting out for Selinus, capturing the city of Mazara, an outpost of Selinus, on the way. This city would serve as the supply base for the Punic army during the campaign. The army carried their siege equipment with them to Selinus, while the Carthaginian fleet stayed at Motya. Selinus, however, was forewarned of Hannibal's approach, as some of their cavalry had scouted out the Carthaginian army on their arrival at Motya and issued prompt warnings. The Selinute citizens prepared their defenses, called all their citizens outside the city within their walls, collected provisions to stand a siege, while requests for help was sent to Gela
and Syracuse.
The Selinutes took this opportunity to again send messages to Akragas, Gela and Syracuse and repair the damage to their walls. Horsemen carried the messages, and could have reached Syracuse in two days and Syracusans could have reached the city in five. Akragas and Gela opted to wait for the Syracusan response before acting on behalf of Selinus. Syracuse, then engaged against Leontini and Naxos
, broke off hostilities to gather a relief army, but the speed of their preparations were dictated by the assumption that Selinus would hold out for a long time against the Carthaginians. This assumption was erroneous because the Carthaginians were superior at siege warfare. One scholar had commented that among the Greeks states of the 5th century BC, Athens had a reputation for being the most formidable in siege warfare, but compared to the skill of Asian and African powers in this art, its reputation is like the reputation of a one eyed man among the blind.
s again cleared the walls of Greek defenders at different sections of the city wall. Six battering rams were again employed against the walls and ultimately several breaches were made for the Punic infantry to exploit. After the rubble was cleared away from the breaches, groups of soldiers assaulting in relays were unleashed on the town defenders through the gaps in the walls. Once the walls were breached, the Greeks abandoned their effort to defend them. They gathered in the narrow streets, barricaded them and fought a fierce hand to hand battle with the attackers. For 9 days and nights a bitter street by street battle raged, the Iberian troops of the Punic army leading the assault against the Greeks. The Greeks fought back fiercely, tiles/bricks were hurled on the Carthaginians from rooftops lining the narrow streets to aid the hand to hand struggle. Despite heavy casualties, the weight of numbers slowly enabled the Carthaginians to advance through the city. On the ninth day, the Greek women ran out of missiles, which eased the conditions for the Carthaginians. The Greeks began to fall back and ultimately the last stand of the Greeks took place in the Agora after 9 days of savage fighting. When all resistance finally ceased in Selinus, 6,000 Greeks were made prisoners, 3,000 soldiers had escaped to Akragas while 16,000 Greeks had died in the battle and the subsequent massacre. The Carthaginians spared only those who had sought shelter in the temples in the city.
Selinus would later serve as the base for Hermocrates
of Syracuse for his raiding on Punic territory in 407 BC, who would rebuild the walls of Selinus. The peace of 405 BC would allow Greeks to resettle in Selinus, but as a city, Selinus would never rise to its former glory, and would never again be a threat to Segesta. It would finally be destroyed during the First Punic War
by Carthage and its citizens were relocated to Lilybaeum.
Barcid
The Barcid family was a notable family in the ancient city of Carthage; many of its members were fierce enemies of the Roman Republic. "Barcid" is an adjectival form coined by historians ; the actual byname was Barca or Barcas, which means lightning...
family) and the Dorian Greeks of Selinus
Selinunte
Selinunte is an ancient Greek archaeological site on the south coast of Sicily, southern Italy, between the valleys of the rivers Belice and Modione in the province of Trapani. The archaeological site contains five temples centered on an acropolis...
. The city of Selinus had defeated the Elymian city of Segesta
Segesta
Segesta was the political center of the Elymian people, located in the northwestern part of Sicily, in what are now the province of Trapani and the comune of Calatafimi-Segesta....
in 415 BC, an event that led to the Athenian invasion of Sicily in 415 BC and ended in the defeat of Athenian forces in 413 BC. When Selinus again worsted Segesta in 411 BC, Carthage, responding to the appeal of Segesta, had besieged and sacked Selinus after the Carthaginian offer of negotiations had been refused by the Greeks. This was the first step towards Hannibal's campaign to avenge the Carthaginian defeat at the 1st battle of Himera in 480 BC. The city of Selinus was later rebuilt, but never regained her former status.
Background
The island of Sicily contained the Elymians, Sikans and the Siculi living in respective communities before the PhoeniciaPhoenicia
Phoenicia , was an ancient civilization in Canaan which covered most of the western, coastal part of the Fertile Crescent. Several major Phoenician cities were built on the coastline of the Mediterranean. It was an enterprising maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550...
ns had started their colonisation of Sicily after 800 BC. The Phoenicians had initially planted trading posts all over the coast of Sicily, but never penetrated far inland and ultimately withdrew without resistance to the Western half of the island (concentrating in the cities of Motya
Motya
Motya , was an ancient and powerful city on an island off the west coast of Sicily, between Drepanum and Lilybaeum...
, Panormus and Soluntum) with the arrival of the Greek colonists after 750 BC. The Ionian Greeks took the lead in colinising Sicily among Greeks when they planted Naxos
Naxos (Sicily)
Naxos or Naxus , was an ancient city of Sicily, on the east coast of the island between Catana and Messana...
in 735 BC, and spread north and west along the island coast until the city of Himera
Himera
thumb|250px|Remains of the Temple of Victory.thumb|250px|Ideal reconstruction of the Temple of Victory.Himera , was an important ancient Greek city of Sicily, situated on the north coast of the island, at the mouth of the river of the same name , between Panormus and Cephaloedium...
was founded in c648 BC, bordering the Phoenician territory of Soluntum. The Dorian Greeks founded Syracuse in 734 BC, and spread south then west along the coastline until Selinus was founded around 654 BC, bordering the Phoenician territory of Motya. While the Ionian Greeks on the whole had friendly relations with the native Sicilians and the Phoenicians, the Dorian Greeks were comparably more aggressive, pushing inland at the expense of the natives to expand the Greek domain. Conflicts among the Greeks colonies and between the natives and Greeks erupted, but these were localised mostly affairs without any decisive results or intervention from non Sicilian powers. The Phoenicains and Carthaginians traded with everyone in Sicily and on the whole all the island colonies prospered. This prosperity caused some of the Greek cities to start to expand their territories again, ultimately leading to the events known as Sicilian Wars.
Carthaginian hegemony
The Phoenicians in Sicily had not resisted the initial Greek expansion by force of arms, but this state of affairs changed when the Greeks began to encroach on their territory in Western Sicily. Phoenicians had aided the Elymians against the Dorian Greeks of Selinus in 580 BC, when a Greek colonization attempt of the area around future Lilybaeum (which lies across the Phoenician colony of Motya) was defeated by their joint effort. Nothing is known of the role of Carthage in this episode, and it is possible that the Sicilian Phoenicians were not a part of the Punic hegemony at that time. The Carthaginian king Malchus is said to have "conquered all Sicily" and sent booty captured to Tyre sometime after this event. This probably implies that Carthage had incorporated the Phoenician colonies of MotyaMotya
Motya , was an ancient and powerful city on an island off the west coast of Sicily, between Drepanum and Lilybaeum...
, Panormus and Solus into the Punic Hegemony led by Carthage, which had begun to resist Greek encroachment of Western Mediterranean after 600 BC. The growth of Selinus and Himera during the period Malchus was active in Sicily indicates that Carthaginians were not in conflict with the Sicilian Greeks at that time. However, Carthage countered the expedition of Spartan Dorieus in 510 BC and the Greeks were defeated near Eryx
Eryx
In Greek mythology, Eryx was a king of the city of Eryx in Sicily. He was either the son of Poseidon or Aphrodite and King Butes of the Elymian people of Sicily. Eryx was an excellent boxer but died when Heracles beat him in a match....
, a clear indication that Carthage now held sway over the Phoenician interests in Sicily. A war followed this event, which eventually led to Carthage destroying the city of Heraclea Minoa
Heraclea Minoa
Heraclea Minoa , in Sicily, was an ancient Greek city, situated on the south coast of the island, at the mouth of the river Halycus , 25 km west of Agrigentum , near modern Montallegro...
. The year this even took place is not known, but Carthage did not intervene in Sicily again until 480 BC after Heraclea had been destroyed. Carthage granted the Sicilian Phoenicians local autonomy, keeping control of their foreign policy, extracting some sort of tribute in exchange for military aid. The Elymians, dominated by Segesta, were given allied status, protecting them from further hostility of Selinus, which had also allied herself with Carthage because of the threat presented by the rise of Akragas.
Greek tyrants
Two Greeks from GelaGela
Gela is a town and comune in the province of Caltanissetta in the south of Sicily, Italy. The city is at about 84 kilometers distance from the city of Caltanissetta, on the Mediterranean Sea. The city has a larger population than the provincial capital, and ranks second in land area.Gela is an...
, Cleander
Cleander of Gela
For other persons with the same name, see CleanderCleander was a tyrant who ruled the Sicilian city of Gela, which had been previously subject to an oligarchy. He reigned for seven years, and was murdered 498 BC, by a citizen of Gela named Sabyllus who wanted to see the introduction of democracy...
and Gelo
Gelo
Gelo , son of Deinomenes, was a 5th century BC ruler of Gela and Syracuse and first of the Deinomenid rulers.- Early life :...
, had been involved in the war that eventually destroyed Heraclea Minoa. An appeal for aid to avenge the death of Dorieus was ignored by mainland Greece, even by Leonidas of Sparta, the brother of Dorieus and who later would win immortal fame at a narrow pass called Gates of Fire in 480 BC. While Carthage was engaged in Sardinia, the Greek colonies in Sicily had fallen under the rule of tyrants. Some of these tyrants, notably those ruling Gela, Akragas and Rhegium, sought to expand their dominion at the expense of native Sicilians and other Greek cities during 505 -480 BC, with the Dorian city of Gela being the most successful. Tyrants like Cleander and Hippocrates
Hippocrates of Gela
Hippocrates was the second tyrant of Gela and ruled from 498 BC to 491 BC. He was the brother of Cleander and succeeded him to the throne after his death. With him, Gela began its expansion phase; Hippocrates aimed to conquer all of southeastern Sicily in order to build a great state with Gela as...
successfully took over Sicel and Ionian Greek territory, and by 490 BC, Zankle, Leontini, Catana and Naxos
Naxos (Sicily)
Naxos or Naxus , was an ancient city of Sicily, on the east coast of the island between Catana and Messana...
had fallen under Gelan control. Syracuse had managed to survive the attampts of Hippocrates with help from Corinth
Corinth
Corinth is a city and former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Corinth, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit...
, but Gelo, successor of Hippocrates, captured Syracuse and made the city his capital. Akragas expanded her territory against the Sikans and Sicels, and under Theron
Theron of Acragas
Theron , son of Aenesidamus, was a Greek tyrant of the town of Acragas in Sicily from 488 BC. He soon became an ally of Gelo, who at that time controlled Gela, and from 485 BC Syracuse. Gelo later became Theron's son-in-law....
, allied with Gelo to forestall any future conflicts between the neighboring powers. The Ionian Greeks, having lost Naxos and Catana to Gelan aggression, responded by creating an alliance between tyrants of Himera
Himera
thumb|250px|Remains of the Temple of Victory.thumb|250px|Ideal reconstruction of the Temple of Victory.Himera , was an important ancient Greek city of Sicily, situated on the north coast of the island, at the mouth of the river of the same name , between Panormus and Cephaloedium...
and Rhegion. Anaxilas
Anaxilas
Anaxilas or Anaxilaus , son of Cretines, was a tyrant of Rhegium . He was originally from Messenia, a region in the Peloponnese....
, tyrant of Rhegion, who had managed to detach Zankle from clutches of Syracuse by 485 BC, married the daughter of Terillus
Terillus
Terillus son of Crinippus, tyrant of Himera, in Sicily.Nothing is know about how Terillus rose to power. Nor is there any information available to historians about the duration or events of his reign...
, tyrant of Himera. Both Himera and Rhegion also made treaties with Carthage. Terillus went further, becoming guest friend of Hamicar Mago, "king" of Carthage.
Thus three powers were delicately balanced in Sicily by 483 BC. Carthage kept the peace between Elymians and Selinus, while the Ionian Greeks in the north (led by Himera and Rhegion) faced the Dorians Greeks from the South, led by Syracuse and Akragas. This situation changed when Theron, with support from citizens of Himera, deposed Terillus and took over that city in 483 BC. Carthage intervened at the instigation of Anaxilus, and the Sicilian Greeks under the tyrants Gelo
Gelo
Gelo , son of Deinomenes, was a 5th century BC ruler of Gela and Syracuse and first of the Deinomenid rulers.- Early life :...
and Theron
Theron of Acragas
Theron , son of Aenesidamus, was a Greek tyrant of the town of Acragas in Sicily from 488 BC. He soon became an ally of Gelo, who at that time controlled Gela, and from 485 BC Syracuse. Gelo later became Theron's son-in-law....
crushed the Punic expedition of 480 BC in the 1st battle of Himera
Battle of Himera (480 BC)
The Battle of Himera , supposedly fought on the same day as the more famous Battle of Salamis, or on the same day as the Battle of Thermopylae, saw the Greek forces of Gelon, King of Syracuse, and Theron, tyrant of Agrigentum, defeat the Carthaginian force of Hamilcar the Magonid, ending a...
. The Carthaginian domain in Western Sicily was untouched by this defeat. Carthage had refrained from intervening in Sicilian affairs for 70 years, while expanding her hegemony in Africa, Sardinia and Spain.
This defeat of an external power brought prosperity but not peace for Sicilians, Greeks and non Greeks alike. The political landscape in Sicily during those years changed as some of the Greek tyrants were replaced by democracy and oligarchy, the influence of Syracuse shrunk in Sicily and infighting between the Greek cities flared up. Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
had sent fleets to Sicily in 427, 425 and 424 BC to intervene in these conflicts, which ultimately caused Hermocrates
Hermocrates
Hermocrates was a general of Syracuse during the Athenians' Sicilian Expedition.The first historical reference to Hermocrates is at the congress of Gela in 424 BC, where he gave a speech demanding the Sicilian Greeks stop their quarrelling...
of Syracuse to request all Sicilian Greek cities to remain at peace at the congress of Gela in 424 BC. Peace between Greeks and the natives of Sicily was not part of this agreement. Ironically, the defeated Carthaginians and their allies, the Elymians seem to have enjoyed comparably more peaceful existence after the battle of Himera until 415 BC.
Selinus vs. Segesta
Greek Selinus and Elymian Segesta share a long history of trade and conflict. The cities were trading partners and had a close enough relationship to have passed laws allowing inter-marriage between citizens. There had been conflicts as well; The Phoenicians had aided the Elymians to beat back the Greek invasions of 580 and 510 BC of Lilybaeum and Eryx. It is unknown what role Segesta played in the war where Carthage destroyed Minoa. Segesta was neutral. during the first battle of Himera (ironically Selinus had sided Carthage). The period following Himera was one of prosperity for both cities. Around 454 BC, a conflict involving Motya, Segesta, Selinus and Akragas took place, details are confusing except that Carthage was not involved, Selinus won a victory and the Elymians had appealed for aid from Athens without any known results. After a peace lasting almost 3 decades, Segestan power seem to have weakened and Selinus opened hostilities in 416 BC.Athenenian expedition
The Greeks of Selinus crossed the upper reaches of the River Mazaros and occupied some disputed lands on the border of Segestan domain and started to raid Segestan territory. Segesta requested the Greeks to stop, and when this was not heeded, they managed to recapture the lands, but the Greeks defeated them in a later battle. Segesta then requested Akragas and Syracuse to intervene in vain, in fact Syracuse joined Selinus and sent a fleet to blockade the Elymian coast. In desperation Segesta sent an embassy to Carthage, but the Carthaginians refused any aid. Segesta had allied with Athens in 426 BC when they had intervened in Sicily for the first time and an embassy was sent to Athens begging aid. The resultant Athenian invasion of Sicily during 415-413 BC was destroyed by a combined effort of Sicilian cities including Selinus and Syracuse. As an ally of Athens, the position of Segesta had become precarious.Renewed Selinute aggression
After the Athenian defeat, Selinus sought to expand her domain again. Her geographic position meant an expansion had to be against either Motya to the West or Akragas to the East, or against Segesta to the north. Conflict with Motya meant taking on Carthage, while Akragas was the wealthiest city in Sicily and a relatively stronger opponent compared to Segesta. Furthermore, Segesta was allied to an enemy power and conquering the Elymians would have given Selinus control of an area rivaling that of Syracuse in size and direct land access to the Tyrrhenian Sea – and direct trade route with the EtruscanEtruscan society
Etruscan society is mainly known through the memorial and achievemental inscriptions on monuments of Etruscan civilization, especially tombs. This information emphasizes family data. Some contractual information is also available from various sources...
and Massaliot markets.
Selinus resumed hostilities in 410 BC, again reoccupying the disputed lands across the Mazaras river. Segesta, fearing that any resistance would bring Syracuse into the fray against them, remained passive, but the Greeks continued to raid Segestan domain. Segesta now sent an embassy to Carthage begging protection.
The Carthaginian response
Carthage, during the 70 years following the battle of Himera, had expanded her domain in Africa, explored new trade routes in the Atlantic coasts of Africa and Europe and had pacified Sardinia under the leadership of the Magonid dynasty, but had not intervened in Sicilian affairs – and Sicilian Greeks had also refrained from provoking her. By changing trade patterns and consolidating markets Carthage had by 430 BC amassed a huge horde of gold and silver. The Greeks were aware of the growing power of Carthage, which is why Syracuse had contemplated requesting her aid against the Athenian invasion, while the Athenians actually requested Carthage for aid during the invasion. Carthage had denied aid to both, and also declined to help Segesta in 416 BC. The situation was different in 411 BC, when the Segastans renewed their plea.Reason for intervention
Firstly, Segesta decided to submit to Carthage and become a dependent ally. This probably meant that Segesta would retain internal and commercial autonomy, but surrender control of foreign policy, pay for any Punic garrison housed in Elymian territory, and perhaps pay tribute in return for Carthaginian protection. Secondly, one of the Suffets of Carthage was Hannibal Mago, a member of the Magonid dynasty – and no lover of Greeks. From the Carthaginian prospective, probably three factors stood out: A victory of Selinus would mean a strong power in Western Sicily capable of threatening Punic interests, submission of Segesta would enlarge the Carthaginian domain, while any intervention risked a war with the mighty Syracuse. The Carthaginian Senate debated the matter at length, and the influence of Hannibal finally secured a verdict for accepting Segestan submission to the Punic Hegemony and lending aid to Segesta. Hannibal was authorized to aid Segesta by any means necessary.Shuttle diplomacy
Hannibal was not influenced by his personal feelings while tackling his task. He sent an embassy to Selinus proposing they keep the disputed lands in exchange for a ceasefire with Segesta. This move gave Carthage some time to mobilize troops, as they had no standing army, and had it succeeded, it would have enlarged the Carthaginian domain (Segesta was a dependency now), ensured Segestan security without war. The Carthaginian offer was debated in Selinus council, and Empidion, a citizen with ties to Carthage, strongly advocated for acceptance of these terms to avoid a conflict with Carthage. The Greeks of Selinus chose to decline the Carthaginian offer.Hannibal next sent Carthaginian and Segestan envoys to Syracuse, with a proposition that they mediate the dispute between Selinus and Segesta – calculating that Selinus would refuse arbitration and then Syracuse would decline to become further involved. When a Selinute embassy told the Syracusans they need to mediate the matter, Syracusans replied that they would neither break their alliance with Selinus or break the peace with Carthage. Carthage thus had a free hand to deal with Selinus, without the fear of outright interference from Syracuse. Carthaginian diplomacy had managed to isolate Selinus for the time being.
The expedition of 410 BC
Carthage maintained no standing army, so Hannibal initially sent an army made of 5,000 African soldiers and 800 Italian mercenaries (previously in service with the Athenian expedition) to Sicily, (Carthage also provided horses for the Italians), and stationed this force at Segetsa. While the army of Selinus was plundering Segestan territory, and had scattered into small groups because of carelesness, the reinforced army of Segesta sallied forth, caught the scattered Selinute soldiers by surprise, inflicted almost 1,000 casualties on the Greeks and captured all the booty collected by them. Segesta was secure from Greek raids for the moment, as the Greeks retreated back to Selinus after this clobbering. Syracuse received a request for aid from Selinus after this fiasco, which was voted but nothing was done at this time. Segesta meanwhile, probably fearful of Syracusan retaliation, appealed for further aid to Carthage.The main expedition
Hannibal, responding the Segestan appeal, put together a larger force, said to have numbered 120,000 men including 4,000 cavalry, recruited from Africa, Sardinia, Spain and even Sicilian Greeks, and this army even contained many Carthaginian volunteers. Modern estimates place the army strength at 30,000-40,000 soldiers. The army started mustering in the summer of 410 BC, and did not set forth until the spring of 409 BC.Carthaginian cohorts
The Carthaginian army composed of mercenaries from various nations.The Libyans supplied both heavy and light infantry and formed the most disciplined units of the army. The heavy infantry fought in close formation, armed with long spears and round shields, wearing helmets and linen cuirasses. The light Libyan infantry carried javelins and a small shield, same as the Iberian light infantry. Iberian soldiers wore purple bordered white tunics and leather headgear. Iberian Heavy infantry fought in a dense phalanx, armed with heavy throwing spears, long body shields and short thrusting swords. Campanian, Sardinian and Gallic infantry fought in their native gear, but often were equipped by Carthage.
The Libyans, Carthaginian citizens and the Libyo-Phoenicians provided disciplined, well trained cavalry equipped with thrusting spears and round shields. Numidia contributed superb light cavalry armed with bundles of javelins and riding without bridle or saddle. Iberians and Gauls also provided cavalry, which relied on the all out charge. Allied cities of the Punic hegemony contributed contingents for the army as well. Carthaginian officer corps held overall command of the army, although many units may have fought under their chieftains. Greeks hired from Sicily and Italy fought as hoplites.
Selinus: location and defence
Selinus was one of the richest cities in Sicily, settled by Dorian Greeks from Megara Hybla in 628 BC. Although not in the same league with Syracuse and Akragas, its location and citizens were expected to offer a taught defence - which was the assumption made by the Syracusans when preparing their relief army.The city features
The city of Selinus sits on a hill (height approximately 47 meters, it is gently sloped on three sides except on the seaward side to the south) between the rivers Selinus and Hypsas. The walled acropolis to the south of the hill contained the original city, which later extended towards the north, covering the whole hill. Somewhere North of the acropolis was the agora. Selinus contained two harbors located to the West and East of the hill on the mouths of the rivers. To the West and East of the city, beyond the rivers, are two hills on top of which some of the temples of the city are located. The exact location of the city wall cannot be traced, but it may have covered at least the acropolis and hill on which the city stood.The defenders
Large Sicilian cities like Syracuse and Akragas could field up to 10,000 – 20,000 citizens, while smaller ones like Himera and Messana mustered between 3,000 – 6,000 soldiers. Selinus probably had between 3,000 - 5,000 soldiers, and no mercenaries to augment their numbers.The soldiers of Selinus were Hoplites, and the city also had a considerable number of cavalry available for its defence. Little is known about the state of Selinute warships or their disposition at this time. Selinus had fought most of its war away from the city after 480 BC so it is understandable that the walls of Selinus is said to have fallen in ill repair. During the siege, all citizens, including women and old men would be mobilized, and most will serve as improvised missile troops. By pelting the attacking enemy with tiles, brick and other objects, these impromptu peltast
Peltast
A peltast was a type of light infantry in Ancient Thrace who often served as skirmishers.-Description:Peltasts carried a crescent-shaped wicker shield called pelte as their main protection, hence their name. According to Aristotle the pelte was rimless and covered in goat or sheep skin...
s could take a heavy toll during urban fighting (the most famous casualty of such amateur troops was the great Pyrrhus
Pyrrhus
Pyrrhus or Pyrrhos or Pyrros may refer to the following figures from Greek history and mythology:* Pyrrhus or Neoptolemus, son of Achilles* Pyrrhus of Epirus , famous king, to whom the term Pyrrhic victory alludes...
, brought down by a woman bashing his head with a tile).
Carthaginian expedition to Sicily
Under the escort of 60 triremeTrireme
A trireme was a type of galley, a Hellenistic-era warship that was used by the ancient maritime civilizations of the Mediterranean, especially the Phoenicians, ancient Greeks and Romans.The trireme derives its name from its three rows of oars on each side, manned with one man per oar...
s the soldiers, supplies and siege equipments were ferried from Africa to Motya in Sicily by 1,500 transports in the spring of 409 BC. Levies from the Sicilian Punic cities and Segesta joined the force at Motya. Hannibal allowed 1 day rest for his soldiers before setting out for Selinus, capturing the city of Mazara, an outpost of Selinus, on the way. This city would serve as the supply base for the Punic army during the campaign. The army carried their siege equipment with them to Selinus, while the Carthaginian fleet stayed at Motya. Selinus, however, was forewarned of Hannibal's approach, as some of their cavalry had scouted out the Carthaginian army on their arrival at Motya and issued prompt warnings. The Selinute citizens prepared their defenses, called all their citizens outside the city within their walls, collected provisions to stand a siege, while requests for help was sent to Gela
Gela
Gela is a town and comune in the province of Caltanissetta in the south of Sicily, Italy. The city is at about 84 kilometers distance from the city of Caltanissetta, on the Mediterranean Sea. The city has a larger population than the provincial capital, and ranks second in land area.Gela is an...
and Syracuse.
Setting up the siege
The Carthaginian army reached the city before any help arrived and camped on the western hill near the acropolis before commencing siege operations. Hannibal did not fully invest Selinus by building circumventing walls, as the construction delay might have given Syracuse and other Sicilian Greek cities ample time to send a large army and foil the Carthaginian enterprise. Instead of starving the Greeks into submission, Hannibal chose to attack the city directly with the help of siege equipment. A repeat of the Carthaginian debacle at Himera was not on Hannibal's agenda. The Carthaginian army did not immediately attack Selinus, some time was taken to set up the siege works and assemble the siege engines.The first assault
Leaving a detachment on the eastern side of the city to foil any approaching Greek relief army, the Carthaginians probably attacked the northern side of the city with 6 wooden siege towers and battering rams supported by the Italian mercenaries on the first day. The rams were covered by iron plating to secure them against fire. Selinus had not experienced any siege in the recent past so had little knowledge about dealing with siege warfare. The siege towers, which were taller than the city walls, contained a large number of slingers and missile troops. These attacked the defenders on the walls, who were ultimately forced to flee from the hail of missiles. Then the battering rams were employed against the walls, which were eventually breached. However, the followup infantry attack attack, led by the Campanians was ultimately repulsed after an all day battle, part of the reason being the rubble of the walls had not been cleared away and it impeded the movements of the Carthaginian detachment. While the men of Selinus fought off the Carthaginians, the women and old men carried supplies to the walls and affected repairs. At nightfall the Carthaginians broke off the assault and retired to their camp.The Selinutes took this opportunity to again send messages to Akragas, Gela and Syracuse and repair the damage to their walls. Horsemen carried the messages, and could have reached Syracuse in two days and Syracusans could have reached the city in five. Akragas and Gela opted to wait for the Syracusan response before acting on behalf of Selinus. Syracuse, then engaged against Leontini and Naxos
Naxos (Sicily)
Naxos or Naxus , was an ancient city of Sicily, on the east coast of the island between Catana and Messana...
, broke off hostilities to gather a relief army, but the speed of their preparations were dictated by the assumption that Selinus would hold out for a long time against the Carthaginians. This assumption was erroneous because the Carthaginians were superior at siege warfare. One scholar had commented that among the Greeks states of the 5th century BC, Athens had a reputation for being the most formidable in siege warfare, but compared to the skill of Asian and African powers in this art, its reputation is like the reputation of a one eyed man among the blind.
The final assault
Hannibal renewed his efforts the following day. Archers and slingers positioned on top of the 6 siege towerSiege tower
A siege tower is a specialized siege engine, constructed to protect assailants and ladders while approaching the defensive walls of a fortification. The tower was often rectangular with four wheels with its height roughly equal to that of the wall or sometimes higher to allow archers to stand on...
s again cleared the walls of Greek defenders at different sections of the city wall. Six battering rams were again employed against the walls and ultimately several breaches were made for the Punic infantry to exploit. After the rubble was cleared away from the breaches, groups of soldiers assaulting in relays were unleashed on the town defenders through the gaps in the walls. Once the walls were breached, the Greeks abandoned their effort to defend them. They gathered in the narrow streets, barricaded them and fought a fierce hand to hand battle with the attackers. For 9 days and nights a bitter street by street battle raged, the Iberian troops of the Punic army leading the assault against the Greeks. The Greeks fought back fiercely, tiles/bricks were hurled on the Carthaginians from rooftops lining the narrow streets to aid the hand to hand struggle. Despite heavy casualties, the weight of numbers slowly enabled the Carthaginians to advance through the city. On the ninth day, the Greek women ran out of missiles, which eased the conditions for the Carthaginians. The Greeks began to fall back and ultimately the last stand of the Greeks took place in the Agora after 9 days of savage fighting. When all resistance finally ceased in Selinus, 6,000 Greeks were made prisoners, 3,000 soldiers had escaped to Akragas while 16,000 Greeks had died in the battle and the subsequent massacre. The Carthaginians spared only those who had sought shelter in the temples in the city.
Aftermath
The Syracusan vanguard of 3,000 troops under Diocles had arrived at Akragas when Carthaginians finally captured Selinus. Unable to aid in the defense of that city, Diocles opened negotiations with Hannibal. The first Greek delegation was given harsh answers, but the second one led by Empediones, a pro Carthaginian Selinute, obtained permission to eventually rebuild the city and ransom prisoners. The Carthaginians razed the city to the ground, but spared the temples from any desecration, although the temple treasures were carried off. The mission entrusted to Hannibal had been totally fulfilled with the destruction of Selinus. Instead of returning to Carthage or negotiating a truce with the now hostile Greeks, Hannibal chose to march against Himera, the site of the crushing Carthaginian defeat in 480 BC. Syracusans, alert to the situation, began preparations to aid Himera in earnest. It is not known if the city of Himera had played a part during the battle of Selinus.Selinus would later serve as the base for Hermocrates
Hermocrates
Hermocrates was a general of Syracuse during the Athenians' Sicilian Expedition.The first historical reference to Hermocrates is at the congress of Gela in 424 BC, where he gave a speech demanding the Sicilian Greeks stop their quarrelling...
of Syracuse for his raiding on Punic territory in 407 BC, who would rebuild the walls of Selinus. The peace of 405 BC would allow Greeks to resettle in Selinus, but as a city, Selinus would never rise to its former glory, and would never again be a threat to Segesta. It would finally be destroyed during the First Punic War
First Punic War
The First Punic War was the first of three wars fought between Ancient Carthage and the Roman Republic. For 23 years, the two powers struggled for supremacy in the western Mediterranean Sea, primarily on the Mediterranean island of Sicily and its surrounding waters but also to a lesser extent in...
by Carthage and its citizens were relocated to Lilybaeum.
External links
- Diodorus Siculus translated by G. Booth (1814) Complete book (scanned by Google)