Australian Kriol language
Encyclopedia
Kriol is an Australia
n creole language
that developed initially in the region of Sydney and Newcastle in New South Wales in the early days of White colonisation, and then moved west and north with White and Black stockmen and others. It has died out in most parts of the country, except in the Northern Territory, where the contact between European settlers, Chinese and other Asians and the indigenous
people in the northern regions of Australia
has maintained a vibrant use of the language. It is presently spoken by about 30,000 people. Despite the language's similarities to English
in vocabulary, it has a distinct syntactic structure and grammar, and is, therefore, a language in its own right.
was attempted over a period of about forty years. Settlement finally succeeded in 1870, and an influx of both English and Chinese
speakers followed. In order to communicate between these two groups and the local Aboriginal people, pidgin
s developed throughout the territory based on early Australian Pidgin. By 1900, Northern Territory Pidgin English (NTPE) was widespread and well understood.
NTPE creolised first in the Roper River Mission (Ngukurr), where cattle stations were established and a township developed.
During this period, the relations between the native and European peoples were strained: “a war of extermination” was declared by the settlers, and the Aboriginal people fiercely defended their lands. However, the control of lands was eventually seized by the settlers when a cattle company acquired much of the area. The settlers became more determined to take full control of the land from the native people, and carried out a campaign to do so.
The resettlements and land seizures nearly annihilated the indigenous population, and also provided one major factor in the development of the creole: drastic social change accompanied by severe communication difficulties.
The second requirement for the development of the creole was a new community, which came about when Anglican missionaries set up a refuge in the Roper River region in 1908. This brought together around 200 people from 8 different aboriginal ethnic groups, who spoke different native languages. Although the adults were multilingual, due to frequent meetings and ceremonies, the children had yet to acquire their native language skills, so they used the only common language they had: the NTPE. In their lifetime, these children were almost totally responsible for developing the pidgin into a full language.
Although the relations between the missionaries and Aboriginal people were friendly, the missions were not responsible for the development of Kriol. In fact, they tried to introduce Standard English
as the official language for the mission, and although the Aboriginal children used this language in class, and with the missionaries, Kriol flourished.
Kriol was not formally recognised as a language until the 1970s, as it was regarded as a dialect of English rather than a language in its own right.
area, but there are minor differences between the varieties of Kriol spoken in particular areas, and certain speakers of Kriol prefer to refer to their language by their unique name. However, linguistically the varieties are quite similar. Debate is ongoing about whether the varieties should be named differently, to highlight their different social significance, or whether they should all be lumped into one big category of Kriol. The differences are not actually that large: Mari Rhydwen compares the distinction to the distinction between American and British English.
Roper River (Ngukurr) Kriol is also spoken in Barunga, and in the Daly River area they speak a variety that is mutually intelligible, but Daly River speakers do not consider themselves to be Kriol speakers. There is the question of whether the varieties should be understood as different forms of Kriol to strengthen the identities of the respective regions; or whether they all should be seen as Kriol, and potentially have a better chance of funding for bilingual education programs.
Ngukurr Kriol example text can be found here:
http://ewh.ieee.org/r10/nsw/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=32&Itemid=59
in the Kriol language was officially launched at Katherine
in the Northern Territory. Translation took over 29 years, and was undertaken by a team of native Kriol speakers led by Rev. Canon Gumbuli Wurrumara and specialists from the Society for Australian Indigenous Languages. The Kriol Bible is the first complete edition of the Bible in any indigenous Australian language. The publication was a joint venture of The Bible Society, Lutheran Bible Translators, The Church Missionary Society, the Anglican church, Wycliffe Bible Translators and the Australian Society of Indigenous Languages.
The only official bilingual language program in Kriol is at Barunga, which was established during the Whitlam government, and has successfully included Kriol as both a medium and object of study. Funding is scarce for any further development of programs. Although Kriol is widely spoken, its literal translation is minimal, with the exception of the Bible
. This means that literacy rates of Kriol are quite low. Apart from practical implications of this, especially if English literacy is also low (i.e. written communication, education opportunities), it means that traditional stories are either not recorded in written form, or the Ngukurr people must rely on texts from Barunga, which may lessen the identity distinction between the two groups. However, Aboriginal cultures are not traditionally rooted in written records, so the lack of written versions of texts may be a function of the oral nature of Aboriginal storytelling.
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
n creole language
Creole language
A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable natural language developed from the mixing of parent languages; creoles differ from pidgins in that they have been nativized by children as their primary language, making them have features of natural languages that are normally missing from...
that developed initially in the region of Sydney and Newcastle in New South Wales in the early days of White colonisation, and then moved west and north with White and Black stockmen and others. It has died out in most parts of the country, except in the Northern Territory, where the contact between European settlers, Chinese and other Asians and the indigenous
Indigenous Australians
Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands. The Aboriginal Indigenous Australians migrated from the Indian continent around 75,000 to 100,000 years ago....
people in the northern regions of Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
has maintained a vibrant use of the language. It is presently spoken by about 30,000 people. Despite the language's similarities to English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
in vocabulary, it has a distinct syntactic structure and grammar, and is, therefore, a language in its own right.
History
European settlement in the Northern TerritoryNorthern Territory
The Northern Territory is a federal territory of Australia, occupying much of the centre of the mainland continent, as well as the central northern regions...
was attempted over a period of about forty years. Settlement finally succeeded in 1870, and an influx of both English and Chinese
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
speakers followed. In order to communicate between these two groups and the local Aboriginal people, pidgin
Pidgin
A pidgin , or pidgin language, is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common. It is most commonly employed in situations such as trade, or where both groups speak languages different from the language of the...
s developed throughout the territory based on early Australian Pidgin. By 1900, Northern Territory Pidgin English (NTPE) was widespread and well understood.
NTPE creolised first in the Roper River Mission (Ngukurr), where cattle stations were established and a township developed.
During this period, the relations between the native and European peoples were strained: “a war of extermination” was declared by the settlers, and the Aboriginal people fiercely defended their lands. However, the control of lands was eventually seized by the settlers when a cattle company acquired much of the area. The settlers became more determined to take full control of the land from the native people, and carried out a campaign to do so.
The resettlements and land seizures nearly annihilated the indigenous population, and also provided one major factor in the development of the creole: drastic social change accompanied by severe communication difficulties.
The second requirement for the development of the creole was a new community, which came about when Anglican missionaries set up a refuge in the Roper River region in 1908. This brought together around 200 people from 8 different aboriginal ethnic groups, who spoke different native languages. Although the adults were multilingual, due to frequent meetings and ceremonies, the children had yet to acquire their native language skills, so they used the only common language they had: the NTPE. In their lifetime, these children were almost totally responsible for developing the pidgin into a full language.
Although the relations between the missionaries and Aboriginal people were friendly, the missions were not responsible for the development of Kriol. In fact, they tried to introduce Standard English
Standard English
Standard English refers to whatever form of the English language is accepted as a national norm in an Anglophone country...
as the official language for the mission, and although the Aboriginal children used this language in class, and with the missionaries, Kriol flourished.
Kriol was not formally recognised as a language until the 1970s, as it was regarded as a dialect of English rather than a language in its own right.
Varieties of Kriol
Kriol is very widely spoken in the KatherineKatherine, Northern Territory
Katherine is a town situated southeast of Darwin in the "Top End" of Australia in the Northern Territory. It is the fourth largest settlement in the Territory after the capital Darwin, Palmerston and Alice Springs...
area, but there are minor differences between the varieties of Kriol spoken in particular areas, and certain speakers of Kriol prefer to refer to their language by their unique name. However, linguistically the varieties are quite similar. Debate is ongoing about whether the varieties should be named differently, to highlight their different social significance, or whether they should all be lumped into one big category of Kriol. The differences are not actually that large: Mari Rhydwen compares the distinction to the distinction between American and British English.
Roper River (Ngukurr) Kriol is also spoken in Barunga, and in the Daly River area they speak a variety that is mutually intelligible, but Daly River speakers do not consider themselves to be Kriol speakers. There is the question of whether the varieties should be understood as different forms of Kriol to strengthen the identities of the respective regions; or whether they all should be seen as Kriol, and potentially have a better chance of funding for bilingual education programs.
Ngukurr Kriol example text can be found here:
http://ewh.ieee.org/r10/nsw/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=32&Itemid=59
Kriol Bible translation
On 5 May 2007, the first complete edition of the BibleBible
The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
in the Kriol language was officially launched at Katherine
Katherine, Northern Territory
Katherine is a town situated southeast of Darwin in the "Top End" of Australia in the Northern Territory. It is the fourth largest settlement in the Territory after the capital Darwin, Palmerston and Alice Springs...
in the Northern Territory. Translation took over 29 years, and was undertaken by a team of native Kriol speakers led by Rev. Canon Gumbuli Wurrumara and specialists from the Society for Australian Indigenous Languages. The Kriol Bible is the first complete edition of the Bible in any indigenous Australian language. The publication was a joint venture of The Bible Society, Lutheran Bible Translators, The Church Missionary Society, the Anglican church, Wycliffe Bible Translators and the Australian Society of Indigenous Languages.
Current issues
A problem facing many communities in Northern Australia is that creole-speaking children are treated as though they speak English, but speak it badly; so they do not receive education in English as a second language. On the other hand, because they are not regarded as having a native mother tongue, they are denied access to education in their traditional language.The only official bilingual language program in Kriol is at Barunga, which was established during the Whitlam government, and has successfully included Kriol as both a medium and object of study. Funding is scarce for any further development of programs. Although Kriol is widely spoken, its literal translation is minimal, with the exception of the Bible
Bible
The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
. This means that literacy rates of Kriol are quite low. Apart from practical implications of this, especially if English literacy is also low (i.e. written communication, education opportunities), it means that traditional stories are either not recorded in written form, or the Ngukurr people must rely on texts from Barunga, which may lessen the identity distinction between the two groups. However, Aboriginal cultures are not traditionally rooted in written records, so the lack of written versions of texts may be a function of the oral nature of Aboriginal storytelling.