100 Black Men of America
Encyclopedia
100 Black Men Of America is a men's civic organization and service club
whose stated goal is to educate and empower African American
children and teens. As of 2009 the organization has 110 chapters and over 10,000 members in different cities in the United States and throughout the world. The organizations's mission statement is "to improve the quality of life within our communities and enhance educational and economic opportunities for all African Americans. " The organization’s mottos “real men giving real time” and “what they see is what they’ll be” describe the organization's goals of providing positive role models and leaders to guide the next generation of African Americans and other youth. The members are predominantly African American
professionals, businessmen, civic leaders and administrators, educators, as well as people from other walks of life.
Dr. William Hayling, a member of the NY organization, had relocated to Newark, NJ and sought to replicate the 100's impact in that area. In 1976 Dr. Hayling formed the 100 Black Men of New Jersey. A movement had been born. Men across the country began to form 100 Black Men organizations to leverage their collective talents and resources. Chapters were formed in Los Angeles, Indianapolis, St. Louis, Pittsburgh, Atlanta, San Francisco/Oakland Bay Area, Nassau/Suffolk, Alton, and Sacramento.
On September 21, 1983, a three-hour meeting was held at the Washington Hilton Hotel in Washington, D.C., among representatives from the Los Angeles, New York, New Jersey, and St. Louis chapters. This meeting was to evaluate the feasibility of establishing a National Organization for 100 Black Men. This meeting was held during the annual weekend meeting of the Congressional Black Caucus.
Representative of St. Louis, Pittsburgh, Atlanta, the San Francisco/Oakland Bay Area, Nassau/Suffolk and Sacramento met for a second time in Las Vegas, May 11-13, 1984, at the Las Vegas Hilton Hotel. The men engaged in extensive discussions about the most effective structure to support the growth and governance of 100 Black Men chapters.
The third meeting was held May 16-18, 1986 at the Flamingo Hilton Hotel in Las Vegas. At this meeting it was agreed that the best model for a newly-formed national organization was a federation governance model. This model leveraged human and financial resources, and supported chapter growth while preserving chapter autonomy. It was also voted that a National Steering Committee would include the Presidents of each chapter, along with two members from each chapter.
A final meeting was held on October 2, 1986 at the L'Enfant Plaza Hotel in Washington. Chapters represented were: Los Angeles, St. Louis, Indianapolis, Atlanta and New Jersey. The chapters decided that the name of the organization would be: "100 Black Men of America, Inc."
The following individuals were elected as officers:
Dr. William Hayling (Los Angeles) President Moses Gray (Indianapolis) Secretary Oliver Lofton, Esq. (New Jersey) Vice-President Jesse C. Swanigan (St. Louis) Treasurer On May 27, 1987, in Atlanta, Georgia, this newly formed organization introduced itself to the nation during its first national conference. Noted speakers included the late Alex P. Haley and the late Honorable Maynard H. Jackson.
In 1989, Nathaniel R. Goldston III became the organization's second National President and grew the organization to 43 chapters. Mr. Goldston used his business acumen and resources to expand the number of chapters and enhancing the organization's infrastructure. Under Mr. Goldston, the organization acquired its first national office and its first Executive Director. Along with Mr. Goldston, Warren Valdrey (Vice President), T.B. Boyd III (Treasurer) and Moses Gray (Secretary) served as elected officers.
In 1994, Thomas W. Dortch Jr. was elected the third National President. That year, he spearheaded an aggressive plan entitled Four For The Future™. Since that time, the organization has strategically channeled its resources toward programs that support these important areas: Mentoring, Education, Health & Wellness, and Economic Development. The 100 has identified these areas as being critical to the future of African Americans.
Along with Mr. Dortch, LeRoy G. Walker, Jr. (Vice President), William L. Wimberly (Vice President), Hon. Roosevelt F. Dorn (Vice President), Lonnie J. Carr (Treasurer), and Albert E. Dotson, Jr. (Secretary). In 1997, under Mr. Dortch's leadership the organization expanded internationally with the chartering of the Birmingham, England chapter. Additional international chapters and interest groups followed including: Nassau Bahamas, Goree Island, Senegal, Kingston, Jamaica, U.S. Virgin Islands, and London, England. It was also in 1997 that the organization purchased its World Headquarters building on historic Auburn Avenue in Atlanta, Georgia. Also, during Mr. Dortch's tenure, the Collegiate 100 was formed to focus the next generation on mentoring.
In 2004, Albert E. Dotson, Jr., Esq. was elected the fourth President/Chairman of the Board and during his inaugural address he recognized the contributions of his predecessors. Dr. Hayling was acknowledged for bringing the various 100 Black Men organizations under the single banner of 100 Black Men of America. Mr. Goldston was recognized for his personal investment of talent and resources that grew the number of chapters focused on the 100’s mission. Mr. Dortch was acknowledged for expanding the organization's resources and building capacity for the 100 to carry out its mission. Chairman Dotson referred to their contributions as the Hayling Harvest, the Goldston Gain and the Dortch Dividend.
The other newly elected officers in 2004 were Curley M. Dossman, Jr. (Vice Chair Operations), Frank Hayes (Vice Chair Finance), Dr. Joshua W. Murfree, Jr. (Vice Chair Programs), John S. Kendall (Vice Chair of Operations) and Anthony B. O'Neill (Secretary). Since 2004, Chairman Dotson has focused the organization on leadership and delivering impactful and innovative programs in each of the Four For The Future areas.
During Dotson’s tenure the 100 launched the Leadership Development Institute (LDI) to provide a vehicle through which members of the 100 could fine tune and enhance their leadership skills. The 100 also created their Community Empowerment Project (CEP) which ensures that the city where the 100 convenes its Annual conference receives a social and societal impact that is sustainable by the community.
From 2006 to 2009, the 100 helped launch the National Cares Mentoring Movement (formerly Essence Cares) to mobilize millions of able African Americans to take the lead in fulfilling our society's spiritual and social responsibility to our children. The 100 expanded its focus on advocacy for responsible public policy, including sponsoring the Internationally broadcasted debate on urban issues among Presidential candidates Senator Barack H. Obama, Senator Hillary R. Clinton and Senator John Edwards. The 100 has consistently increased its resources to deliver relevant new programs and enhance signature programs. The organization is moving their mission and strategic direction forward as it implements Mentoring the 100 Way Across a Lifetime sm.
Today the organization has grown to over 116 chapters with more than 10,000 members who continue to strive to improve the quality of life in our communities and enhance the educational and economic opportunities for African Americans. 100 Black Men of America, Inc. has more than 100,000 youth participants annually in its mentoring and youth development programs. With a mission to improve the quality of life and enhance educational opportunities for African Americans, members of the 100 continue to serve as a strong force in the world by overcoming the cultural and financial obstacles that have limited the achievements of some African Americans, particularly young African American males. Members of the 100 have made outstanding progress, proving that Blacks canand do, excel as corporate leaders, community leaders and as independent business owners.
Membership procedures vary by chapter; generally speaking members can apply to a local chapter at specific times of the year. Candidates are screened and then interviewed by a panel to ensure that individuals have the character and standing to serve as community role models and youth mentors. Members generally refer to the organization simply as “The 100.”
’s T.J. Holmes to discuss their views on President Barack Obama
’s first 100 days as US president. 100 Black Men’s Health and Wellness programs were the subject of a news story feature by CNN’s Dr. Sanjay Gupta About how former Surgeon General
David Satcher
is leading a charge to promote healthy eating among African American youth. CNN also featured a video article on 100 Black Men of Atlanta’s youth “Robotics Team” that is competing on a national and international level.
According to an August 27, 2007, article in the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette
, 100 Black Men of Western Pennsylvania teamed up with Carnegie Mellon University
to provide a 14 week summer program for teenagers to learn about computer science. During the program, which was free to participants, the teenagers learned the basics of computer science
, information technology
, and the World Wide Web
. This is the seventh summer that this program has taken place.
According to a July 9, 2006, article in The New York Times
, the 100 Black Men of Long Island Development Group purchased a building that takes up an entire city block. The building used to be a bus terminal. The organization has proposed converting the building into affordable housing, and housing for people with disabilities. Questions about the organization's ability to fund such a project have been raised, however.
According to a May 24, 2004, article in the San Francisco Chronicle
, the Bay Area (San Francisco) chapter signed a pledge not to accept funding from tobacco companies.
Service club
A service club or service organization is a voluntary non-profit organization where members meet regularly to perform charitable works either by direct hands-on efforts or by raising money for other organizations. A service club is defined first by its service mission...
whose stated goal is to educate and empower African American
African American
African Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have at least partial ancestry from any of the native populations of Sub-Saharan Africa and are the direct descendants of enslaved Africans within the boundaries of the present United States...
children and teens. As of 2009 the organization has 110 chapters and over 10,000 members in different cities in the United States and throughout the world. The organizations's mission statement is "to improve the quality of life within our communities and enhance educational and economic opportunities for all African Americans. " The organization’s mottos “real men giving real time” and “what they see is what they’ll be” describe the organization's goals of providing positive role models and leaders to guide the next generation of African Americans and other youth. The members are predominantly African American
African American
African Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have at least partial ancestry from any of the native populations of Sub-Saharan Africa and are the direct descendants of enslaved Africans within the boundaries of the present United States...
professionals, businessmen, civic leaders and administrators, educators, as well as people from other walks of life.
History
The overall concept of the 100 began in New York in 1963 when a group of concerned African American men began to meet to explore ways of improving conditions in their community. The group eventually adopted the name, "100 Black Men, Inc." as a sign of solidarity. These men envisioned an organization that would implement programs designed to improve the quality of life for African Americans and other minorities. They also wished to ensure the future of their communities by aiming an intense number of resources toward youth development. These members were successful black men from various walks of life. These visionaries were business and industry leaders such as David Dinkins, Robert Mangum, Dr. William Hayling, Nathaniel Goldston III, Livingston Wingate, Andrew Hatcher, and Jackie Robinson.Dr. William Hayling, a member of the NY organization, had relocated to Newark, NJ and sought to replicate the 100's impact in that area. In 1976 Dr. Hayling formed the 100 Black Men of New Jersey. A movement had been born. Men across the country began to form 100 Black Men organizations to leverage their collective talents and resources. Chapters were formed in Los Angeles, Indianapolis, St. Louis, Pittsburgh, Atlanta, San Francisco/Oakland Bay Area, Nassau/Suffolk, Alton, and Sacramento.
On September 21, 1983, a three-hour meeting was held at the Washington Hilton Hotel in Washington, D.C., among representatives from the Los Angeles, New York, New Jersey, and St. Louis chapters. This meeting was to evaluate the feasibility of establishing a National Organization for 100 Black Men. This meeting was held during the annual weekend meeting of the Congressional Black Caucus.
Representative of St. Louis, Pittsburgh, Atlanta, the San Francisco/Oakland Bay Area, Nassau/Suffolk and Sacramento met for a second time in Las Vegas, May 11-13, 1984, at the Las Vegas Hilton Hotel. The men engaged in extensive discussions about the most effective structure to support the growth and governance of 100 Black Men chapters.
The third meeting was held May 16-18, 1986 at the Flamingo Hilton Hotel in Las Vegas. At this meeting it was agreed that the best model for a newly-formed national organization was a federation governance model. This model leveraged human and financial resources, and supported chapter growth while preserving chapter autonomy. It was also voted that a National Steering Committee would include the Presidents of each chapter, along with two members from each chapter.
A final meeting was held on October 2, 1986 at the L'Enfant Plaza Hotel in Washington. Chapters represented were: Los Angeles, St. Louis, Indianapolis, Atlanta and New Jersey. The chapters decided that the name of the organization would be: "100 Black Men of America, Inc."
The following individuals were elected as officers:
Dr. William Hayling (Los Angeles) President Moses Gray (Indianapolis) Secretary Oliver Lofton, Esq. (New Jersey) Vice-President Jesse C. Swanigan (St. Louis) Treasurer On May 27, 1987, in Atlanta, Georgia, this newly formed organization introduced itself to the nation during its first national conference. Noted speakers included the late Alex P. Haley and the late Honorable Maynard H. Jackson.
In 1989, Nathaniel R. Goldston III became the organization's second National President and grew the organization to 43 chapters. Mr. Goldston used his business acumen and resources to expand the number of chapters and enhancing the organization's infrastructure. Under Mr. Goldston, the organization acquired its first national office and its first Executive Director. Along with Mr. Goldston, Warren Valdrey (Vice President), T.B. Boyd III (Treasurer) and Moses Gray (Secretary) served as elected officers.
In 1994, Thomas W. Dortch Jr. was elected the third National President. That year, he spearheaded an aggressive plan entitled Four For The Future™. Since that time, the organization has strategically channeled its resources toward programs that support these important areas: Mentoring, Education, Health & Wellness, and Economic Development. The 100 has identified these areas as being critical to the future of African Americans.
Along with Mr. Dortch, LeRoy G. Walker, Jr. (Vice President), William L. Wimberly (Vice President), Hon. Roosevelt F. Dorn (Vice President), Lonnie J. Carr (Treasurer), and Albert E. Dotson, Jr. (Secretary). In 1997, under Mr. Dortch's leadership the organization expanded internationally with the chartering of the Birmingham, England chapter. Additional international chapters and interest groups followed including: Nassau Bahamas, Goree Island, Senegal, Kingston, Jamaica, U.S. Virgin Islands, and London, England. It was also in 1997 that the organization purchased its World Headquarters building on historic Auburn Avenue in Atlanta, Georgia. Also, during Mr. Dortch's tenure, the Collegiate 100 was formed to focus the next generation on mentoring.
In 2004, Albert E. Dotson, Jr., Esq. was elected the fourth President/Chairman of the Board and during his inaugural address he recognized the contributions of his predecessors. Dr. Hayling was acknowledged for bringing the various 100 Black Men organizations under the single banner of 100 Black Men of America. Mr. Goldston was recognized for his personal investment of talent and resources that grew the number of chapters focused on the 100’s mission. Mr. Dortch was acknowledged for expanding the organization's resources and building capacity for the 100 to carry out its mission. Chairman Dotson referred to their contributions as the Hayling Harvest, the Goldston Gain and the Dortch Dividend.
The other newly elected officers in 2004 were Curley M. Dossman, Jr. (Vice Chair Operations), Frank Hayes (Vice Chair Finance), Dr. Joshua W. Murfree, Jr. (Vice Chair Programs), John S. Kendall (Vice Chair of Operations) and Anthony B. O'Neill (Secretary). Since 2004, Chairman Dotson has focused the organization on leadership and delivering impactful and innovative programs in each of the Four For The Future areas.
During Dotson’s tenure the 100 launched the Leadership Development Institute (LDI) to provide a vehicle through which members of the 100 could fine tune and enhance their leadership skills. The 100 also created their Community Empowerment Project (CEP) which ensures that the city where the 100 convenes its Annual conference receives a social and societal impact that is sustainable by the community.
From 2006 to 2009, the 100 helped launch the National Cares Mentoring Movement (formerly Essence Cares) to mobilize millions of able African Americans to take the lead in fulfilling our society's spiritual and social responsibility to our children. The 100 expanded its focus on advocacy for responsible public policy, including sponsoring the Internationally broadcasted debate on urban issues among Presidential candidates Senator Barack H. Obama, Senator Hillary R. Clinton and Senator John Edwards. The 100 has consistently increased its resources to deliver relevant new programs and enhance signature programs. The organization is moving their mission and strategic direction forward as it implements Mentoring the 100 Way Across a Lifetime sm.
Today the organization has grown to over 116 chapters with more than 10,000 members who continue to strive to improve the quality of life in our communities and enhance the educational and economic opportunities for African Americans. 100 Black Men of America, Inc. has more than 100,000 youth participants annually in its mentoring and youth development programs. With a mission to improve the quality of life and enhance educational opportunities for African Americans, members of the 100 continue to serve as a strong force in the world by overcoming the cultural and financial obstacles that have limited the achievements of some African Americans, particularly young African American males. Members of the 100 have made outstanding progress, proving that Blacks canand do, excel as corporate leaders, community leaders and as independent business owners.
Organization and membership
100 Black Men consists of over 110 local chapters (each named after their respective region, e.g., 100 Black Men of New York, 100 Black Men of Atlanta, etc.) 100 Black Men of America is the overarching organization that provides a national governing structure, charters new chapters, and provides for inter-chapter coordination. 100 Black Men is a non-profit 501 c3 organization and has no political or religious affiliations or ties.Membership procedures vary by chapter; generally speaking members can apply to a local chapter at specific times of the year. Candidates are screened and then interviewed by a panel to ensure that individuals have the character and standing to serve as community role models and youth mentors. Members generally refer to the organization simply as “The 100.”
Programs
100 Black Men has four principal program areas: Mentoring, Education, Health and Wellness, Economic Development. As of 2009, 100 Black Men has roughly 100,000 students enrolled in its mentoring and outreach programs.- Mentoring The organization provides youth mentoring that addresses the emotional and cultural needs of African American children aged 8 – 18. Members are trained to become mentors and advocates for youth who may have few or no other positive role models in their communities. Programs vary from chapter to chapter and range from informal one-on-one mentoring programs to complete youth academies.
- Education Seeks to provide support services to schools and educators in the form of volunteerism, “teacher for a day” programs and extracurricular activities. This element also works to influence policy set at the local, state, and federal levels to ensure that all youth have equal access to education.
- Health and Wellness The organization has extensive programs which are designed to encourage physical fitness and healthy eating habits among youth as well as increasing public awareness of the specific health issues and risks facing African Americans (e.g. heart diseaseHeart diseaseHeart disease, cardiac disease or cardiopathy is an umbrella term for a variety of diseases affecting the heart. , it is the leading cause of death in the United States, England, Canada and Wales, accounting for 25.4% of the total deaths in the United States.-Types:-Coronary heart disease:Coronary...
, hypertensionHypertensionHypertension or high blood pressure is a cardiac chronic medical condition in which the systemic arterial blood pressure is elevated. What that means is that the heart is having to work harder than it should to pump the blood around the body. Blood pressure involves two measurements, systolic and...
, diabetes, sickle cell, etc.). 100 Black Men hosts numerous track meets, athletic events, public outreach and health screening events. - Economic Development Seeks to empower African American individuals and enterprises through financial literacy training, small business training and seminars, as well as forums to connect African American businesses with each other and to the larger community as a whole.
Recent activities
In 2009, several leaders of the organization were interviewed by CNNCNN
Cable News Network is a U.S. cable news channel founded in 1980 by Ted Turner. Upon its launch, CNN was the first channel to provide 24-hour television news coverage, and the first all-news television channel in the United States...
’s T.J. Holmes to discuss their views on President Barack Obama
Barack Obama
Barack Hussein Obama II is the 44th and current President of the United States. He is the first African American to hold the office. Obama previously served as a United States Senator from Illinois, from January 2005 until he resigned following his victory in the 2008 presidential election.Born in...
’s first 100 days as US president. 100 Black Men’s Health and Wellness programs were the subject of a news story feature by CNN’s Dr. Sanjay Gupta About how former Surgeon General
Surgeon General of the United States
The Surgeon General of the United States is the operational head of the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps and thus the leading spokesperson on matters of public health in the federal government...
David Satcher
David Satcher
David Satcher, M.D., Ph.D. FAAFP, FACPM, FACP is an American physician, and public health administrator. He was a four-star admiral in the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps and served as the 10th Assistant Secretary for Health, and the 16th Surgeon General of the United...
is leading a charge to promote healthy eating among African American youth. CNN also featured a video article on 100 Black Men of Atlanta’s youth “Robotics Team” that is competing on a national and international level.
According to an August 27, 2007, article in the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette
Pittsburgh Post-Gazette
The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, also known simply as the "PG," is the largest daily newspaper serving metropolitan Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.-Early history:...
, 100 Black Men of Western Pennsylvania teamed up with Carnegie Mellon University
Carnegie Mellon University
Carnegie Mellon University is a private research university in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States....
to provide a 14 week summer program for teenagers to learn about computer science. During the program, which was free to participants, the teenagers learned the basics of computer science
Computer science
Computer science or computing science is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and of practical techniques for their implementation and application in computer systems...
, information technology
Information technology
Information technology is the acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical information by a microelectronics-based combination of computing and telecommunications...
, and the World Wide Web
World Wide Web
The World Wide Web is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet...
. This is the seventh summer that this program has taken place.
According to a July 9, 2006, article in The New York Times
The New York Times
The New York Times is an American daily newspaper founded and continuously published in New York City since 1851. The New York Times has won 106 Pulitzer Prizes, the most of any news organization...
, the 100 Black Men of Long Island Development Group purchased a building that takes up an entire city block. The building used to be a bus terminal. The organization has proposed converting the building into affordable housing, and housing for people with disabilities. Questions about the organization's ability to fund such a project have been raised, however.
According to a May 24, 2004, article in the San Francisco Chronicle
San Francisco Chronicle
thumb|right|upright|The Chronicle Building following the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake|1906 earthquake]] and fireThe San Francisco Chronicle is a newspaper serving primarily the San Francisco Bay Area of the U.S. state of California, but distributed throughout Northern and Central California,...
, the Bay Area (San Francisco) chapter signed a pledge not to accept funding from tobacco companies.
Partial list of prominent members
- David DinkinsDavid DinkinsDavid Norman Dinkins is a former politician from New York City. He was the Mayor of New York City from 1990 through 1993; he was the first and is, to date, the only African American to hold that office.-Early life:...
- The Hon. James E. Graves, Jr.James E. Graves, Jr.James Earl Graves, Jr. is a federal judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit. The Senate confirmed him on February 14, 2011 and he received his commission on February 15, 2011.-Early years:...
- Bishop Eddie L. Long
- Michael MisickMichael MisickMichael Eugene Misick was the chief minister of the Turks and Caicos Islands from 15 August 2003 to 9 August 2006 and was the first Premier of the Turks and Caicos Islands from 9 August 2006 to 23 March 2009....
- Jackie RobinsonJackie RobinsonJack Roosevelt "Jackie" Robinson was the first black Major League Baseball player of the modern era. Robinson broke the baseball color line when he debuted with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947...
(deceased) - David SatcherDavid SatcherDavid Satcher, M.D., Ph.D. FAAFP, FACPM, FACP is an American physician, and public health administrator. He was a four-star admiral in the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps and served as the 10th Assistant Secretary for Health, and the 16th Surgeon General of the United...
, Former US Surgeon General - William Thompson (New York)
- Alonzo MourningAlonzo MourningAlonzo Harding Mourning, Jr. is a former American professional basketball player, who played most of his 15-year NBA career for the Miami Heat....
- The Hon. Kendrick MeekKendrick MeekKendrick Brett Meek is an American politician who was the U.S. Representative for from 2003 to 2011. He was the Democratic nominee in the 2010 Senate election for the seat of Mel Martinez, but he lost in a three way race to Republican Marco Rubio along with Independent Charlie Crist.-Early life,...
- Kevin LilesKevin LilesKevin Liles is an American record executive. Liles was president of Def Jam Recordings and executive vice president of The Island Def Jam Music Group from 1999 to 2004...
- Tom JoynerTom JoynerThomas "Tom" Joyner is an American radio host, host of the nationally syndicated The Tom Joyner Morning Show, and also founder of REACH Media Inc., the Tom Joyner Foundation, and BlackAmericaWeb.com.-Early life:...
- The Hon. Charles RangelCharles B. RangelCharles Bernard "Charlie" Rangel is the U.S. Representative for , serving since 1971. A member of the Democratic Party, he is the third-longest currently serving member of the House of Representatives. As its most senior member, he is also the Dean of New York's congressional delegation...
- The Hon. Eric HolderEric HolderEric Himpton Holder, Jr. is the 82nd and current Attorney General of the United States and the first African American to hold the position, serving under President Barack Obama....
- J. Bruce LlewellynJ. Bruce LlewellynJ. Bruce Llewellyn was a prominent American businessman. His personal wealth has been estimated to exceed $160 million. In 1963 he joined others to found 100 Black Men of America, a social and philanthropic organization...
(deceased) - Cyril deGrasse Tyson (founding member)
- Roscoe BrownRoscoe BrownRoscoe C. Brown, Jr. is one of the Tuskegee Airmen and former squadron commander of the 100th Fighter Squadron of the 332nd Fighter Group. He graduated from the Tuskegee Flight School on March 12, 1944 as member of class 44-C-SE and served in the U.S. Army Air Corps in Europe during World War II...